PRINCETON,   N.  J. 


Division  

Section   ,.{^...6.6... 

Shelf.   Number  


A  GENEEAL 

HISTOEY   OF  MUSIC 

FROM  THE 


INFANCY  OF  THE  GREEK  DRAMA   TO  THE 
PRESENT  PERIOD 


BY 

W.  S/'^ROCKSTRO, 

ArXHOB    OF    "  THE   LIFE    OF    GEOEGE    FEEDEEICK    HANDEL,"    "  THE    LIFE  OF 
MENDELSSOHN,"  "A  HISTOBT  OF  MUSIC  FOE  YOUNG  STUDENTS,"  "THE 
EULES  OF  COUNTEEPOINT,"  "  PEACTICAL  HABMONY,"  EIC,  ETC. 


SCPJBXER  AXD  WELFORD, 

743  &  745,  BROADWAY. 

1886. 

S^All  rights  reserved.^ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryofOOrock 


PEEFACE. 


A  HUNDRED  years  ago,  so  limited  were  the  recognised 
sources  of  information  concerning  tlie  History  of 
Music,  that  Dr.  Burney,  when  accumulating  the 
materials  for  his  optis  magnum,  found  it  necessary 
to  make  an  extended  tour  through  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
data  needed  for  the  completion  of  his  scheme. 

One  of  the  earliest  writers  on  the  subject  was 
Giovanni  Battista  Doni,  who,  in  a  treatise  entitled 
De  prcestantia  musicce  veteris,  printed,  at  Florence, 
in  1647,  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  Greeks  had 
made  far  greater  advancement  in  Music  than  was 
generally  supposed.  This  work  included  a  tract, 
on  the  same  subject,  by  Pietro  della  Yalle.  Of  a 
more  practical  character  was  Johann  Gottfried  "Weal- 
th er's  Musikalisches  LexiJcon,  published,  at  Leipzig, 
in  1732.  In  1740,  Johann  Mattheson  published  his 
Grundlage  einer  Ehrenpforte,  containing  biographical 
notices  of  many  eminent  Musicians.  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  Marpurg's  Kritische  Einleitung  in  die  Geschicte 

A  2 


iv 


Preface. 


der  Tonkunst,  publislied  in  1751,  was  of  more  ex- 
tended interest ;  though  less  valuable,  by  far,  than 
P.  Giambattista  Martini's  Storia  della  Musica^ 
[3  vols.  Bologna,  1757.  1770.  1781],  and  another 
work,  in  a  certain  sense  continuous  with  it,  entitled, 
De  cantu  et  musica  sacra^  [2  vols.  S.  Blasien,  1774], 
by  P.  Martini's  intimate  friend,  Martin  Gerbert  von 
Hornau,  Prince- Abbot  of  S.  Blasien,  in  the  Black 
Forest :  two  books  which  are  still  regarded  as 
marvels  of  musical  scholarship. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  our  own  two  great  musical 
historians  appear  upon  the  field,  yielding  the  palm  to 
none.  Dr.  Charles  Burney,  already  mentioned,  pub- 
lished the  fiirst  volume  of  his  General  History  of  Music 
from  the  earliest  Ages  to  the  present  Period,  in  1776, 
and  the  fourth  and  last,  in  1789.  Sir  John  Hawkins 
published  his  General  History  of  the  Science  and 
Practice  of  Music,  in  five  volumes,  in  1776.  In 
1819,  Dr.  Thomas  Busby  published  a  Ge^mtZ  ffistoi/ 
of  Music,  founded,  almost  entirely,  on  the  works  of 
his  two  illustrious  predecessors ;  and  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  mention  a  later  musical  historian  who 
has  not  been  largely  indebted  to  their  famous 
volumes. 

Nearly  contemporary  with  these  valuable  works 
was  the  Dictionnaire  de  Musique  of  Jean  Jacques 
Eousseau,  [Geneva,  1767.  Paris,  1768].  Nicolaus 
Forkel  produced  his  Allgemeiyie  Geschichte  der  MusiJc, 


Preface, 


V 


in  two  volumes,  dated  1788,  and  1801.  The  first 
volume  of  Ernst  Ludwig  Gerber's  Eistorisch-hiO' 
graphische  Lexihon  der  Tonhunstler,  based  chiefly  on 
Walther's  older  Lexikon,  was  published  in  1790 ; 
and  the  second,  printed  in  1792,  closes  the  list  of 
Musical  Histories  produced  in  the  18th  century. 

Alexandre  Etienne  Choron,  assisted  hy  Francois 
Joseph  Marie  Fayolle,  published  a  Didionnaire  his- 
torique  des  Miisiciens,  in  1810 — 1811  ;  but,  the  more 
valuable  Biograjphie  universeUe  des  Musiciens,  first 
published  by  Fetis,  in  1835 — 1844,  and  brought 
down  to  a  later  date  by  Pougin's  Supplement,  has 
completely  supplanted  the  earlier  work.  Fetis's 
Histoire  generale  de  la  Miisique,  begun  in  1869,  was 
completed  by  his  son,  Mons.  Edouard  Fetis,  in 
1876. 

A  high  place  is  taken  among  modern  works  by 
the  GescMchte  der  europdiscli-abendldndisclie  Musih 
of  Raphael  Georg  Kiese wetter,  Edler  von  Wiesen- 
brunn,  [1834],  and  the  Histoire  de  VHarmonie  au 
moyen  age  of  Charles  Edouard  Henri  de  Cousse- 
maker,  [1852]  ;  but  the  most  important  works  of 
the  present  half-century  are,  the  GescMchte  der  Musik, 
of  August  Wilhelm  Ambros  [4  vols.  1862.  1864. 
1868.  and  1878,  the  last  vol.  posthumous],  and 
the  Musik alisches  Gonversations-Lexilcon,  begun,  in 
1870,  by  Hermann  Mendel,  and  now  completed,  in 
eight  volumes,  by  Dr.  Reissmann. 


VI 


Preface. 


Very  few  of  these  works  are  to  be  had  in  the 
form  of  English  Iranslations  ;  and  the  cumbrous  and 
expensive  quartos  of  Burney  and  Hawkins,  leave 
even  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th  century  unnoticed. 
Ambroses  work,  interrupted  by  his  death,  reaches 
only  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  There 
is,  indeed,  no  volume,  of  moderate  size,  embodying 
the  entire  History  of  Music,  available,  at  the  present 
moment,  to  the  English  reader;  and  it  is  with  the 
view  of  providing  him  with  such  a  volume,  that  the 
following  pages  have  been  written.  It  remains, 
therefore,  only  to  add  a  few  words  in  explanation  of 
the  plan  on  which  they  are  designed. 

All  History,  properly  so  called,  is  of  necessity 
written  in  narrative  form.  In  recognition  of  this 
law,  the  greater  part  of  the  following  pages  is 
occupied  with  brief  sketches  of  the  lives  and 
achievements  of  the  great  representative  Musicians 
of  all  ages.  But,  an  Art-Chronicle  consisting  en- 
tirely  of  biographical  notices  would  be  grievously 
incomplete. 

Side  by  side  with  the  political  history  of  a  Nation, 
as  recorded  in  the  lives  of  its  Kings,  runs  a  collateral 
narrative,  dealing  with  its  advancement  in  Science, 
Literature,  Commerce,  and  the  thousand  units  that 
make  up  the  sum  of  its  general  Civilisation. 

Side  by  side  with  the  exoteric  history  of  Art, 
as   set  forth   in  the  achievements  of  the  Men  of 


Preface, 


Vll 


Genius  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  its  culture, 
runs  the  esoteric  record  of  its  technical  develop- 
ment. 

Our  great  national  Historian,  David  Hume,  met 
the  first  condition,  in  his  History  of  England,  by 
means  of  occasional  Chapters,  placed,  in  the  form 
of  Appendices,  at  the  end  of  certain  important 
Reigns.  We  have  endeavoured  to  meet  the  second, 
by  a  single  Appendix,  containing  a  general  sketch 
of  the  Technical  History  of  Music,  from  the  age  of 
the  Greek  Tragedians,  to  the  present  time.  And, 
for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  reference,  we  have 
devoted  a  separate  Section  of  this  Synopsis  to  each 
well-marked  epoch  of  progressive  development ; 
indicating,  in  connection  with  every  Section,  the 
Book  or  Chapters  of  the  General  History  which  the 
technical  remarks  in  question  are  intended  to  illus- 
trate. By  this  means,  we  have  been  enabled  to 
avoid  much  inconvenient  digression,  and  consequent 
interruption  of  the  narrative  portions  of  the  text. 

In  the  hope  of  rendering  the  volume  still  more 
useful  as  a  book  of  reference,  we  have  combined  a 
copious  Chronological  Table  with  the  General  Index. 
With  the  same  purpose  of  facilitating  reference, 
we  have  endeavoured  to  catch  the  student's  eye,  by 
printing  the  names  of  all  works  quoted  as  examples 
in  Italics,  and  by  beginning  all  technical  terms — 
such  as  Stave,  Chord,  Trumpet,  Notation,  &c., — 


viii  Preface. 

with  a  capital  letter,  both  in  the  index  and  in  the 
text  itself.  We  have  also  been  careful  to  supply 
all  information,  not  absolutely  essential  to  the 
sequence  of  the  historical  narrative,  in  the  form 
of  foot-notes. 

In  a  work  designed  expressly  for  the  use  of 
English  readers,  we  have  naturally  dwelt,  at  con- 
siderable length,  upon  the  history  and  vicissitudes  of 
our  national  School — a  circumstance  which  will,  we 
hope,  sufficiently  account  for  what  might  otherwise 
appear  to  indicate  a  want  of  due  proportion  between 
the  dimensions  of  some  of  our  Chapters.  For 
instance,  if  the  Chapter  on  Handel  occupies  more 
space  than  that  devoted  to  Beethoven,  it  is  simply 
because  his  influence  upon  our  national  taste  was  so 
powerful  and  enduring,  that  its  effect,  at  the  present 
moinent,  is  scarcely  less  remarkable  than  it  was 
while  he  was  still  working,  in  the  flesh,  at  the  head 
of  the  English  School.    That  influence,  as  a  plain 
matter  of  history,  is  naturally  described  in  the 
narrative    portion    of    our  work;   whereas,  the 
characteristics  of  Beethoven's  individual  style  are 
more  fittingly  discussed  in  the  Appendix,  which 
forms  the  complement  of  this,  as  well  as  of  many 
other  biographical  notices.    The  same  remark  will 
apply  to  the  Chapters  on  the  Early  English  Schools, 
the  School  of  the  Restoration,  and  others  of  scarcely 
less   importance.    We  trust,  however,  that  our 


Pre/ace, 


IX 


endeavour  to  do  justice  to  our  own  countrymen  has 
not  tempted  us  to  pass  over,  with  insufficient 
recognition,  the  merits  of  the  Schools  which  have 
flourished,  and  are  still  flourishing,  in  other 
countries. 

Elm  Court,  Babbicombe,  Torquay,  1886, 


¥  APR  8  18£ 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK  THE  FIRST. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  EARLY  AGES. 

PAGK 

Chapter  I.  The  Music  of  the  Greeks        ....  3 
„     II.  The  Music  of  the  Early  Christians  .       .  .14 


BOOK  THE  SECOND. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Chapter  III.  The  condition  of  Music  in  the  Early  MidJle 
Ages.    Notation.  Discant.   The  Invention 

of  the  Time-Table  23 

IV.  Concerning  the  Troubadours,  the  Minstrels,  and 

the  Minnesingers      .       .       .       .  .37 

„        V.  The  Invention  of  Counterpoint     ...  43 
VI.  Concerning  the  Polyphonic  Schools      .        .  50 
VII.  Concerning  the  productions  of  the  Polyphonic 
Schools ;  their  distinguishing  characteristics ; 
their  progress  ;  and  the  reform  effected  hy 
Palestrina        .       .       .       .        .  .62 

VIII.  On  the  development  of  Polyphonic  ^lusic  in 

England  .       .       .        .        .       .  .75 

,,       IX.  Mediaeval  Hymnody     .....  84 


Xll 


Contents. 


BOOK  THE  THIRD. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

PAGE 

Chapter    X.  On  the  Schools  of  the  Decadence,  and  the  In- 
vention of  the  Monodic  Style    .       .  .97 

„       XI.  On  the  invention  and  early  history  of  the 

Opera     .       .       .        .       .       .  .103 

„      XII.  On  the  invention  and  early  history  of  the 

Oratorio  .        .       .       .       .       .  .119 

„    XIII.  Instrumental  Music  m  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury  130 

„     XIV.  The  later  Composers  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury ....  ...  152 

XV.  The  English  School  of  the  Restoration  .       .  162 


BOOK  THE  FOURTH. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Chapter  XVI.  On  the  condition  of  Music,  in  Italy,  during 
the  earlier  years  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury   191 

„       XVII.  The  condition  of  Music,  in  France,  England, 
and  Germany,  during  the  earlier  years 


of  the  Eighteenth  Century  .       .  .203 
XVIII.  On  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  Modern 

System  of  Part-writing        .       .       .  208 

XIX.  The  Seven  Lamps  213 

XX.  George  Frederick  Handel       .       .       .  221 
XXI.  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  ....  238 
XXII.  Christoph  Willibald  Gluck     .       .  .247 

XXIII.  Franz  Joseph  Haydn      .       .       .  .260 

XXIV.  AVolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart     .       .  .270 
XXV.  Ludwig  van  Beethoven   .       .       .  .279 

XXVI.  The  development  of  the  Piano-forte  .        .  28-1 


Contents. 


xiii 


Chapter  XXVII.  On  the  condition  of  Dramatic  Music,  in 
Italy,  during  the  closing  years  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  .  .  .  .292 
XXYIII.  On  the  condition  of  Dramatic  Music,  in 
France,  during  the  later  decades  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  .  .  .  .295 
,,       XXIX.  Concerning  the   Schools  of  Leipzig  and 

Vienna  303 

„  XXX.  The  general  condition  of  Music,  in  England, 
during  the  closing  years  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  311 

BOOK  THE  FIFTH. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Chapter  XXXI.  The  Seven  lesser  Lights.  Schubert.  Veber. 

Spohr.       Mendelssohn.  Schumann. 

Cimarosa.  Cherubini  ....  325 
XXXII.  On  the  general  condition  of  Music,  in  Italy, 

during  the  earlier  half  of  the  Nineteenth 

Century  384 

„    XXXIII.  The  German  Schools  of  the  Xineteenth 

Century  396 

„     XXXIV.  The  French  Schools  of  the  I^ineteenth 

Century     ......  414 

„      XXXV.  The  English  Schools  of  the  Xineteenth 

Century  431 

BOOK  THE  SIXTH. 

THE  PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  MUSIC,  AND  ITS 
PROBABLE  INFLUENCE  UPON  THE  FUTURE. 

Chapter    XXXVI.  The  X'ew  World       ....  449 
XXXVII.  Wilhelm  Eichard  Wagner  .       .       .  455 
XXXVIII.  L'Envoi  471 


XIV 


Contents, 


APPENDIX. 

EPITOME  OF  THE  TECHNICAL  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC, 
FROM  THE  EARLIEST  AGES  TO  THE  PRESENT. 

PAGE 

Section  I.  The  Epoch  of  the  Greek  Drama  .  .  .477 
„  11.  The  Epoch  of  Plain  Chaunt  .  .  .479 
„  III.  The  Epoch  af  the  Polyphonic  Schools  .  .  480 
IV.  The  Epoch  of  Monodia  ....  483 
„  V.  The  Epoch  of  the  Polyodic  Schools  .  .  483 
„      VI.  The  Epoch  of  the  development  of  Instrumental 

Music  486 

„  VII.  The  Epoch  of  the  Classical  Schools  .  .  491 
„    VIII.  The  Epoch  of  the  Imaginative  and  Eomantic 

Schools  494 

„       IX.  The  latest  form  of  Technical  Development   .  497 


Index  and  Chronological  Table   .  .       .       .  501 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


PAGE 

f  Two  Views  of  a  Stradivari  Violin  of  the  best  period.  [Dated 

1708]  137 

-f-Handel's  Harpsichord  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

[Dated  1651]  141 

f  Spinet,  by  Thomas  Hitchcock.    [Circa  1645]     .       .  .142 
t Spinet,  by  Charles  Haward.    [Circa  1668]        .       .  .143 
f  A  German  Clavichord.    [17th  century]      .       .       .  .145 

The  Haarlem  Organ.    [Completed  1738]    .       .       .  .149 

fHeniy  Purcell.    (From  a  painting  by  John  Closterman)     .  185 
George  Frederick  Handel  .       .       .       .       .       .  .236 

Johann  Sebastian  Bach      .......  243 

Christoph  Willibald,  Kitter  von  Gluck       ....  258 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn ........  266 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart        ......  277 

Ludwig  van  Beethoven      .       .        .       .       .        .  .281 

f  Tlie  Abbe  Franz  Liszt  291 

fEtienne  Henri  Mehul  300 

f  Franz  Peter  Schubert        .       .       .       .       .       .  .332 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber      .......  341 

Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  366 

Robert  Schumann     ........  370 

f  Madame  Malibran  395 


The  Illustrations  marked  thus  (f)  are  taken,  by  the  kind  permission  of 
Messrs.  Macmillan  and  Co.,  from  Sir  George  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music 
and  Musicians. 


BOOK  THE  FIRST. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  EAELY  AGES. 


HISTOEY  OF  MUSIC. 


CHAPTEH  I. 

THE  MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS. 

The  earliest  musical  system  of  which  we  possess 
any  authentic  record  is  that  invented  by  the  Greeks ; 
or,  perhaps — as  more  than  one  historian  of  credit 
has  suggested — borrowed,  by  them,  from  some  still 
older  scheme,  of  Phoenician  or  Egyptian  origin,  of 
which  all  independent  trace  has  long  since  vanished. 

It  would  be  impossible,  now,  to  bring  forward 
any  direct  evidence  strong  enough  to  decide  the 
rival  claims  of  either  Greece,  Egypt,  or  Phoenicia, 
to  priority  of  discovery.  Tradition,  however,  speaks 
very  positively  on  the  subject.  A  legend,  of  im- 
memorial antiquity,  ascribes  the  first  idea  of  the 
Lyre  to  Hermes  Trismegistus,  who,  while  wandering 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  is  said  to  have  found  the 
shell  of  a  tortoise,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  to  have 
used  it  as  a  framework  for  the  first  musical  instru- 
ment that  was  ever  constructed,  fitting  it  with  three 

B  2 


4  History  of  Music, 

chords  formed  from  the  desiccated  tendons  of  the 
animal.  And  those  fertile  banks  have  served,  as  the 
nursery  of  so  much  that  is  great  and  beautiful,  in  other 
branches  of  Art,  that  we  may  well  believe  the  world 
to  have  been  indebted  to  the  people  who  dwelt  upon 
them  for  its  knowledge  of  the  first  principles  of 
Music,  as  well  as  those  of  Architecture,  and  Sculpture. 

The  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  at  Thebes,  afford  strong 
presumptive  evidence  in  favour  of  this  view.  In 
their  mysterious  recesses,  Bruce  discovered  the 
wonderful  picture  of  the  Harper,  playing  upon  an 
instrument  with  thirteen  strings,  which,  supposing 
the  performer  to  have  been  a  moderately  tall  man, 
must  have  been  at  least  six  feet  in  height.^  The  Lyre, 
the  single  and  double  Flute,  the  Sistrum,  and  other 
characteristic  instruments,  are  all  portrayed,  with 
equal  attention  to  detail,  in  these  marvellous  has- 
reliefs^  which  depict  the  whole  life,  both  public,  and 
domestic,  of  the  buried  monarchs.  And  a  wondrous 
life  it  must  have  been  !  For,  these  ancestors  of 
the  later  Pharaohs  were  intellectual  giants.  Their 
monuments  place  the  perfection  of  their  mental  cul- 
ture beyond  all  doubt.  But,  they  were  very  jealous 
of  their  learning ;  and  its  mysteries  were  rarely 
communicated  to  enquirers  unsanctified  by  the  priest- 
hood. And  so  it  came  to  pass,  that,  whatever  the 
Egyptians  may  have  known  of  Music,  it  was,  quite 
'  Eurney,  I.  p.  220,  et  seq.  Plate  VIII. 


The  Mtisic  of  the  Greeks, 


5 


certainly,  first  openly  cultivated,  as  an  Art,  among 
the  Greeks ;  who  taught  it  to  their  children,  as  the 
strongest  incentive  to  virtue  with  which  they  were 
acquainted ;  used  it  in  their  Temples  ;  made  it  a 
prominent  feature  in  their  public  Games  ;  and,  above 
all,  consecrated  it  to  the  service  of  their  incom- 
parable Drama. 

Of  the  splendours  by  which  the  Classical  Drama 
was  surrounded,  in  the  home  of  its  infancy  and 
glorious  adolescence,  it  is  simply  impossible  for  the 
wildest  artistic  visionary  of  the  present  age  to  form 
any  adequate  conception.  We  have,  for  some  years 
past,  been  accustomed  to  witness,  at  Bayreuth, 
dramatic  representations,  the  magnificence  of  which 
our  fathers  would  have  regarded  as  altogether  pre- 
posterous :  and  we  may  justly  be  forgiven,  if  they 
tempt  us  to  feel  a  httle  proud  of  the  advances  made, 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  in  everything 
that  concerns  the  management  of  the  stage.  We 
think  it  a  great  thing  that  a  devoted  lover  of  Art 
should  undertake  a  fatiguing  and  expensive  journey 
to  the  dullest  of  German  towns,  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  listening  to  a  performance  of  '  Parsifal,'  or  the 
famous  *  Trilogy.'  And,  it  is  a  great  thing.  But, 
what  are  we  to  think  of  travellers  from  distant 
lands,  who,  after  undertaking  a  long  and  perilous 
journey  to  Athens,  took  their  places,  in  the  great 
Lensean  Theatre,  on  the  evening  before  the  per- 


6  History  of  Music, 

formance,  and  sat  there,  in  patient  expectation, 
during  the  entire  night  ?  "What  idea  can  we  form 
of  a  single  festal  representation,  which — as  we  are 
assured  by  a  grave  contemporary  historian,  who 
must  have  known  the  truth — cost  the  Athenians 
more  than  the  whole  of  the  Peloponesian  War? 
What  comparison  will  the  Grand  Opera  House  at 
Paris  bear  with  a  Theatre  capable  of  accommodating 
50,000  spectators ;  begun,  500  years  before  the 
Christian  a3ra — in  consequence  of  the  fall  of  the 
temporary  platform  used  for  the  performance  of 
^schylus's  first  Tragedy — and  not  completed  until 
B.C.  340  ;  fitted,  more  than  2000  years  ago,  with 
scenery,  capable  of  being  instantaneously  changed, 
during  the  course  of  the  performance,  and  with 
machinery  beside  which  ours  would  seem  dwarfed  to 
the  proportions  of  a  little  toy  model  ?  Truly,  we 
think  too  much  of  our  own  exploits ;  and  too  little 
of  those  which  we,  of  the  present  generation,  are  not 
likely  to  see  rivalled.  We  can  no  more  picture  to 
ourselves  the  gorgeous  effect  of  such  performances, 
in  such  a  Theatre,  than  we  can  imagine  the  glories 
of  the  chryselephantine  statue  of  Pallas  Athene  with 
which  Phidias  adorned  the  Cella  of  the  Parthenon. 

And  we  must  remember  that  the  representations 
of  which  we  speak  were,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term,  musical  performances.  The  Greek  Play  was 
the  acknowledged  prototype  of  the  modern  Opera. 


The  Music  of  the  Greeks, 


7 


Every  word  of  it  was  sung.  What  the  Greeks  called 
a  Tragedy,  we  call  a  Dramma  per  la  musica.  What 
they  called  a  Comedy  bore  a  close  analogy  to  the 
Italian  Ojjera  huffa ;  while  our  so-called  Romantic 
Opera  was  even  more  clearly  foreshadowed  by  the 
Hellenic  Tragi-Comedy,  of  which  the  Alcestis  of 
Euripides,  produced  B.C.  438,  affords  a  most  in- 
teresting and  suggestive  example.  Two  thousand 
years  ago,  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles  affected  the 
Greeks  as  Tristan  unci  Isolde  affects  us  now.  True, 
it  treated  of  a  nobler  form  of  devotion  than  that  of 
two  impassioned  lovers.  But  it  spoke  straight  to 
the  heart  of  the  Athenian  ;  and,  through  the  self- 
same medium  that  Tristan  und  Isolde  speaks  to  our 
hearts,  now — through  the  medium  of  Music.  If  we 
forget  this,  we  shall  neither  do  justice  to  the  Greek 
Drama,  nor  to  our  own. 

These  facts  are  undoubted.  We  know  that 
^schylus  composed  the  Music  to  his  own  Tra- 
gedies ;  that  Sophocles  accompanied  at  least  one  of 
his  Plays  upon  the  Cithara ;  and  that  Euripides 
wrote  the  verbal  text  only  of  his  Dramas,  entrust- 
ing the  composition  of  the  Music  to  other  hands. 
But,  unhappily,  our  knowledge — resting  entirely 
upon  the  evidence  transmitted  to  us  by  early 
historians — ends  here.  No  genuine  Greek  compo- 
sitions have  been  preserved  to  us.  The  only  osten- 
sible examples  now  extant  are  three  Hymns — to 


8 


History  of  Music, 


Apollo,  Nemesis,  and  Calliope — and  the  First  Pythian 
Ode  of  Pindar,  the  authenticity  of  which  rests  on 
testimony  so  little  trustworthy,  that  it  would  be  in 
the  highest  degree  imprudent  to  use  them  as  the 
basis  of  any  theory  whatever.  But,  if  the  dramatic 
compositions  of  the  Greeks  are  irrevocably  lost,  we 
possess  a  store  of  their  theoretical  treatises  suffi- 
ciently rich  to  give  us  a  perfectly  clear  idea  of  the 
constitution  of  their  Scale ;  and,  consequently,  of  the 
effect  their  Melodies  must  have  produced,  when  sung, 
by  carefully-trained  voices,  in  the  vast  Theatres  at 
Athens,  Corinth,  Sicyon,  Argos,  Ephesus,  and 
other  great  centres  in  which  the  cultivation  of 
Hellenic  Art  was  regarded  as  a  religious  duty. 

The  most  important  theoretical  writings  preserved 
to  us  are  those  of  Aristoxenus,  [b.c.  300],  Euclid, 
[b.o.  277],Nichomachus,(A.D.60),  Alypius,  (a.d.115), 
Gaudentius,  (a.d.  100),  Bacchius,  (a.d.  140),  Aristides 
Quintilianus,  [a.d.  110],  and  Martianus  Capella,  [a.d. 
470]  ;  all  collected,  and  printed,  by  Meibomius,  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1652  ;  Pythagoras,  [b.c.  585]  ;  Lasus 
— of  whose  works  a  few  fragments  only  have  been 
preserved,  by  Athenseus :  Didymus,  [a.d.  60]  ;  and, 
lastly,  Claudius  Ptolomy,  [a.d.  130],  whose  ^  Rar- 
monies  '  bring  the  Scale  into  closer  correspondence 
with  our  own  than  those  of  any  other  theorist.^ 

^  The  dates  here  given  represent  the  nearest  approximation  to 
the  truth  now  possible. 


The  Mttsic  of  the  Greeks, 


9 


Of  these  writings,  the  most  practically  important 
is  unquestionably  the  '  Section  of  the  Canon '  (Kara- 
Kavovoi)  of  the  great  mathematician,  Euclid ;  a 
treatise  describing  the  various  sounds  derivable 
from  the  proportionate  divisions  of  the  open  string 
of  the  Monochord.  The  learned  Alexandrian,  fol- 
lowing the  so-called  Immutable  System  invented  by 
Pythagoras,  sets  forth  his  method  of  division  with 
the  clearness  for  which  he  has  always  been  so  justly 
celebrated;  showing  that  the  Greeks  were  no  less 
familiar  than  ourselves  with  the  most  perfect  inter- 
vals of  the  natural  Scale — the  Octave,  Fourth, 
Fifth,  and  Greater  Tone.  But,  at  this  point,  they 
diverged  from  the  true  path,  and  instead  of  pro- 
ceeding to  demonstrate  the  remaining  intervals  of 
the  series,  wandered  oflf  to  others,  of  proportions  too 
complicated  to  unite  with  the  first  four  in  har- 
monious combination;  thus  producing  a  Scale, which, 
to  modern  ears,  would  sound  so  intolerably  '  out  of 
tune  '  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  vocalist  of  the 
present  day  could  be  taught  to  sing  it.^    We  know 

'  Pythagoras  divided  the  entire  System  into  groups  called 
Tetrachords,  each  consisting  of  four  sounds,  confined  within  the 
limits  of  a  Perfect  Fourth,  mathematically  in  tune — i.e.  produced 
by  exactly  f  of  the  open  string  which  served  as  its  root.  The  two 
middle  Tetrachords  were  separated  by  a  '  Tone  of  Disjunction 
while,  in  the  other  cases,  the  most  acute  sound  of  one  Tetrachord 
corresponded  with  the  gravest  of  that  next  above  it.  To  cover  the 
'  Tone  of  Disjunction,'  a  connecting  Tetrachord  was  added,  formed 


lo  History  of  Music, 

indeed,  that,  at  a  very  early  period,  even  Greek  ears 
were  found  bold  enough  to  dispute  the  authority  of 
this  faulty  mathematical  division,  and  that  so  hotly, 
that  Musicians  divided  themselves  into  two  parties, 
called  Pythagoreans,  and  Aristoxenians ;  the  first  of 
whom  advocated  the  Immutable  System,  while  the 
last  corrected  the  crudity  of  the  more  complicated 
intervals  by  ear,  in  the  manner  recommended  by 
Aristoxenus.  It  was  not  until  about  the  sixtieth 
year  of  the  Christian  JGra  that  Didymus  discovered 
the  constitution  of  the  Lesser  Tone,  and  the  Dia- 
tonic Semitone,  and,  by  consequence,  that  of  the 
Major  Third  ;  thus  removing  the  otherwise  insuper- 

of  sounds  derived  from  those  of  two  of  the  others.  The  whole 
system  may  be  thus  expressed,  in  modern  Notation. 


Proslamba-  Tetrachordon  Tetrachordon  Tone  of  Tetrachordon  Tetrachordon 
nomenos.       Hypaton.  Meson.       Disjunction.  Diezeugmenon.  Hj^perbolaeon. 


Fig.  1. 


The  note  called  Proslamhanomenos  must  here  be  understood  to 
correspond  with  the  open  string,  by  the  division  of  which  all  the 
notes  of  the  Scale  are  produced.  The  functions  of  this  note  have 
seldom  been  very  intelligibly  explained ;  its  grammatical  and 
technical  meanings  being  apparently,  though  not  really,  at 
variance.  The  clearest  dissertation  on  the  subject  with  which  we 
are  acquainted  will  be  found  among  the  Addenda  to  General 
Perronet  Thompson's  '  Just  Intonation.'  (H.  Donkin,  43,  Pater- 
noster Eow.) 


The  Music  of  tJu  Gj^eeks. 


able  discrepancies  between  tlie  Greek  and  natural 
Scales.  And,  when  Claudius  Ptolomj,  about  the 
year  130,  discovered  the  true  position  of  this  Lesser 
Tone  (above  the  Greater  Tone)  in  the  series,  the 
way  was  fairly  prepared  for  the  gi^adual  completion 
of  the  Octave  of  our  modern  system."^    It  seems, 

*  The  modern  Major  Scale  resemloles  the  Greek  System,  in  that 
it  is  composed  of  two  Tetrachords,  separated  Idy  a  Tone  of  Dis- 
junction. But,  in  the  Greek  Tetrachord,  the  Heniitone — the  rude 
homologue  of  our  Diatonic  Semitone — fell  always  between  the  two 
gravest  sounds;  while  our  truer  Semitone  falls  between  the  two 
highest  sounds  in  the  series.  The  following  example  represents 
the  Major  Scale,  with  the  fractions  representing  the  exact  mathe- 
matical proportions  of  its  intervals,  when  taken  in  perfect  tune,  in 
accordance  with  the  system  now  known  as  '  Just  Intonation.' 

Tone  of 

Lower  Tetrachord.    Disjionction.    Upper  Tetrachord. 


Our  Minor  Scale  is  formed  of  two  dissimilar  Tetrachords,  also 
disjunct.  In  the  lowest  of  these,  the  Semitone  falls  between  the 
two  middle  sounds ;  in  the  highest,  it  separates  the  two  gravest 
sounds,  as  in  the  Greek  System. 


Tone  of 
Disjunction. 


1_L-5__1  2  9  1 

9  -J        4  3         816V  9/2 

Fig.  3. 

In  this  Scale,  the  constitution  of  the  lower  Tetrachord  is  un- 
changeable :  but,  in  ascending,  the  intervals  of  the  upper  one  are 
generally  made  to  coincide  with  those  of  the  Major  Mode. 


12 


History  of  Music, 


indeed,  more  than  probable,  that  our  series  of  eight 
natural  sounds  formed  the  System  of  which  the 
Aristoxenians  had  been  in  search,  from  the  first ; 
though  it  was  altogether  incompatible  with  the 
Pythagorean  '  Section  of  the  Canon,'  the  unnatural 
character  of  which  rendered  perfection  of  tonality 
impossible,  either  in  the  Diatonic,  the  Chromatic,  or 
the  Enharmonic  Genus,^  and  extended  its  vitiating 
influence  to  every  one  of  the  Modes  in  succession.^ 

^  The  united  Major  and  Minor  Scales  furnish  the  modern  ana- 
logue of  the  Greek  Diatonic  Genus.  The  Chromatic  and  Enhar- 
monic Genera  of  the  Greeks  differ  so  much  from  ours,  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  institute  any  sort  of  comparison  between 
them. 

®  We  have  no  modern  equivalent  for  the  Greek  Modes ;  nor 
even  an  approximate  analogue.  Their  essence  consisted  in  the 
division  of  the  collective  Scale  into  certain  specified  regions,  of 
limited  extent,  each  named  after  the  State  or  Province  in  which  it 
was  supposed  to  be  most  popular.  Pythagoras  used  three  Modes 
only.  Euclid,  following  Aristoxenus,  enumerates  thirteen.  Alypius 
increased  the  number  to  fifteen.  In  the  following  Table,  the 
three  Modes  of  Pythagoras  are  marked  thus  (^),  and  the  two  added 
by  Alypius,  thus  (§).  The  capital  letter  denotes  the  gravest  sound 
of  the  series. 
(1.)  Hypodorian  [or  Locrian]  (A). 

(2.)  Hypoionian  [or  Hypoiastian,  or  Grave  Hypophrygian]  (Bp). 

(3.)  Hypophrygian  (Bl;)). 

(4.)  Hyposeolian  [or  Grave  Hypolydian]  (C). 

(5.)  Hypolydian  (Cif). 

(6.)  Dorian  (D)  T 

(7.)  Ionian  [or  lastian,  or  Grave  Phrygian]  (El^). 
(8.)  Phyrgian  (EIj)  f. 


The  Mtisic  of  the  Greeks. 


13 


(9.)  ^olian  [or  Grave  Lydian]  (F). 
(10.)  Lydian  (Fi)  % 
(11.)  Mixolydian  [or  Hyperdorian]  (G). 

(12.)  Hyperionian  [or  Hyperiastian,  or  Acute  Mixolydian]  (Gtf). 
(13.)  Hypermixolydian  [or  Hyperphrygian]  (a). 
(14.)  Hyperaeolian  (b[7)  §. 
(15.)  Hyperlydian  (btj)  §. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  MUSIC  OF  THE  EAELY  CHRISTIANS. 

Though  the  Romans  derived  tlieir  knowledge  of 
Music  entirely  from  the  Greeks,  they  cultivated  the 
art  with  far  less  earnestness  than  their  Hellenic 
precursors  ;  neither  regarding  it  as  an  indispensable 
branch  of  education,  nor  as  an  essential  element  of 
the  Latin  Drama,  into  which,  indeed,  it  was  not 
introduced,  even  as  an  accessory,  until  B.C.  365. 

But  when,  in  the  first  cenfcury  of  the  Christian 
^ra,  Jewish  converts,  flying  from  persecution  in 
their  own  country,  began  to  congregate  in  the 
Eternal  City,  they  brought  with  them  an  entirely 
new  form  of  Music — that  which  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  hear,  and  sing,  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 
During  the  terrible  period  marked  by  the  rise  and 
subsidence  of  the  ten  General  Persecutions,  this 
grave  devotional  Music  was  rarely  heard,  save  in 
the  Catacombs ;  where  alone  the  early  Christian 
converts   could  worship  in  comparative  security, 


A.D.  384.]  The  Reform  effected  by  S,  Ambrose.  15 

until  the  victory  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  freed 
thera  from  the  horrors  of  the  torture-chamber,  and 
the  daily  peril  of  an  agonising  death  in  the  Flavian 
Amphitheatre.  As  a  natural  consequence  of  the 
secrecy  they  were  compelled  to  observe,  during  the 
three  centuries  which  preceded  the  formal  recogni- 
tion of  Christianity  by  tlie  State,  the  Melodies  they 
sang  were  handed  down,  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, by  oral  tradition  only.  Such  a  method  of 
transmission,  continued  through  long  periods  of  time, 
must  inevitably  lead  to  extensive  corruption  of  the 
original  text,  if  not  to  its  utter  extinction.  To 
remedy  the  fii'st  of  these  evils,  and  avert  all  danger 
of  the  second,  S.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  about 
the  year  384,  made  a  general  collection  of  the 
Melodies  then  in  use ;  reducing  each  to  the  purest 
attainable  form ;  and  laying  down  a  code  of  technical 
laws  which  greatly  diminished  the  risk  of  future 
deterioration.  Some  two  centuries  later,  S.  Gregory 
the  Great  followed  up  this  important  work  by 
making,  about  the  year  590,  a  second  collection, 
far  more  extensive  than  that  bequeathed  to  the 
Church  by  S.  Ambrose,  and  based  upon  a  far  more 
comprehensive  musical  system.  The  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  scheme  of  S.  Gregory  was  the 
admission  of  eight,  if  not  nine  Modes — or,  as  we 
should  now  call  them.  Scales — in  place  of  the  four 


1 6      The  Reform  effected  by  S,  Gregory,  [a.d.  590. 

sanctioned  by  S.  Ambrose/  Moreover,  the  col- 
lection formed  by  tlie  Bishop  of  Milan  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  Tones — or  Tunes — to  the  Psalms,  and 
those  adapted  to  the  ancient  Hymns  of  the  Church; 
whereas  that  of  S.  Gregory — called  his  Anii- 
jphonarium — included  many  new  Hymns,  besides 
the  Music  to  the  Antiphons  for  the  entire  Eccle- 
siastical Year,  and  much  other  Ritual  Music,  of 
more  or  less  importance,  expressed  in  an  improved 
form  of  musical  Notation,  or,  rather,  Semiography, 
invented  by  the  Saint  himself.    The  combined  mass 

^  The  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  though  named  after,  and  ostensibly- 
derived  from  the  Modes  of  the  Greeks  (see  ante^  p.  12,  note)  have, 
in  reality,  scarcely  any  affinity  with  them.  Since  the  time  of 
S.  Gregory,  they  have  been  separated  into  two  classes,  called 
Authentic  (or  Fundamental),  and  Plagal  (or  Derived),  each  Plagal 
Mode  lying  a  Fourth  lower  than  its  Authentic  original.  S.  Am- 
brose sanctioned  the  use  of  the  first  four  Authentic  Modes  only — 
Nos.  I.,  III.,  Y.,  and  VIL  of  the  complete  series.  To  these, 
S.  Gregory  is  believed  to  have  added  the  first  four  Plagal  Modes — 
!Nos.  II.,  IV.,  VI.,  and  VIII.  The  number  was  afterwards 
increased  to  fourteen,  including  two,  which,  for  technical  reasons, 
were  practically  useless.  The  employment  of  the  remaining  twelve 
was  sanctioned,  towards  the  close  of  the  8th  century,  by  the 
Emperor,  Charlemagne :  but  it  is  usual,  in  describing  them,  to 
enumerate  the  complete  set  of  fourteen,  marking  I^os.  XI.  and 
XII.  as  useless.  In  the  following  Table,  the  letter,  F,  denotes  the 
Final— or,  as  we  should  now  call  it,  the  Tonic,  or  Key-note — of  the 
Mode,  and  the  letter,  D,  its  Dominant.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  Final  of  every  Plagal  Mode  is  identical  with  that  of  its 
Authentic  original ;  but,  that  its  Dominant  is  dififerent. 


A.D.  590.]      The  Ecclesiastical  Modes, 


17 


of  Melodies  received,  in  very  early  times,  the  name 
of  Cantus  planus,  or  Plain  Cbaunt ;  the  older 
collection  being  afterwards  distinguished  as  the 
Ambrosian,  and  the  later  one  as  the  Gregorian 
Chaunt.  The  Ambrosian  Chaunt  is  now  used  only 
in  the  Diocese  of  Milan,  where  its  early  traditions 
have  never  been  suffered  to  lapse.  The  Gregorian 
Chaunt  forms  one  of  the  most  important  features 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Ritual,  from  which  it  has, 


AUTHENTIC  MODES. 
Mode  I.   (The  Dokiajj  Mode.) 


PLAGAL  MODES. 
Mode  XL   (The  Hypcdorian  Mode.) 


Mode  III.   (The  Phrygian  Mode.) 


Mode  V.   (The  Lydian  Mode.) 


Mode  IV.   (The  Hypophrygian  Mode.) 

1 


Mode  VI.   (The  Hypolydian  Mode.) 


F  D 
Mode  VII.  (The  Mixo lydian  Mode.) 


Mode  Vni.  (The  Hypomixolydian  Mode.) 


Mode  IX.  (The  ^oliak  Mode.) 
 ^  ^  i2- 


w      F  D 

Mode  X.   (The  HYPOiEOLiAN  Mode.) 


F  D 

Mode  XI.  {TJie  Locrian  Mode.) 


Mode  XIII.   (The  Ionian  Mode.) 


^  F  D 

Mode  XII.  {The  Hypoloci-ian  Mode.) 

^  -3-  f  ^  D 

Mode  XIV.   (The  Hypotonian  Mode.) 


_  «J     ^      —  -<S>- 

F  ^ 
Fig  4. 

For  farther  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  author's  article  on  Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical  in  Sir  George 
Grove's  '  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.' 

C 


1 8  The  Gregorian  Tones.        [a.d.  590. 

from  time  immemorial,  been  regarded  as  inseparable. 
It  is,  indeed,  the  onlj  kind  of  Music  the  use  of 
which  has  ever  been  authoritatively  commanded  by 
the  Church;  for  which  reason,  its  acceptance  has 
naturally  been  universal.  It  has  also  been  extensively 
used,  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  in  the 
Church  of  England,  where  it  bids  fair,  ere  long,  to 
extinguish  beyond  all  chance  of  resuscitation,  the 
once  popular  '  Anglican  Chant,'  which  dates  no 
farther  back  than  the  reign  of  King  Charles  II. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the  work 
either  of  S.  Ambrose,  or  S.  Gregory,  has  been 
handed  down  to  us  intact.  We  have  described,  in 
general  terms,  the  two  distinct  phases  of  reforma- 
tion inaugurated  by  these  two  learned  Bishops : 
but  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  detailed  account  of 
the  result,  or  even  of  the  exact  nature,  of  their 
labours,  which  are  described,  by  mediaaval  historians, 
in  terms  too  vague  to  admit  of  minute  technical 
criticism.  Moreover,  there  is  scarcely  a  Plain 
Chaunt  Melody  in  existence,  to  which  it  is  possible 
to  assign  even  an  approximate  date,  with  any 
reasonable  show  of  certainty.  All  we  can  say  is, 
that  the  Psalm-Tones  are,  beyond  all  controversy, 
the  oldest  Ecclesiastical  Melodies  we  possess ;  and, 
that  the  tradition  which  represents  some  of  these, 
at  least,  to  have  been  the  original  Melodies  to  which 
the  Psalms  were  sung,  in  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  is 


A.D.  590.]        The  Gregorian  Tones, 


19 


supported  by  strong  presumptive  evidence,  if  not 
susceptible  of  actual  proof.  It  would  be  unreason- 
able to  believe  that  tlie  old  traditions  were  lost, 
before  tbe  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  in  the  time  of 
Zorobabel;  or  that  they  were  suffered  to  lapse, 
afterwards :  and  still  more  absurd  to  suppose  that 
the  Christian  converts,  after  their  arrival  in  Rome, 
would  have  consented  to  sing  the  Psalms  to  any 
other  Melodies  than  those  to  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  in  their  own  country.  Moreover,  those 
Melodies,  now  popularly  known  as  the  '  Gregorian 
Tones,'  are,  as  we  shall  see,  later  on,  the  only 
original  ones  in  existence  which  have  evidently 
been  framed  for  the  express  purpose  of  meeting  the 
peculiar  demands  of  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Surely,  this  means  something !  The  eight  well- 
known  Psalm-Tones  have  not,  of  course,  been 
preserved  to  us  in  their  primitive  purity ;  such  pre- 
servation being  simply  impossible  :  but  they  cer- 
tainly represent  the  nearest  approach  now  attain- 
able to  those  which  were  addressed  '  To  the  Chief 
Musician ' ;  and  a  very  touching  tradition  points  to 
the  Ninth  Tone,  now  generally  known  as  the  Tonus 
jperfigrinus,  and  sung  to  the  Psalm,  In  exitu  Israel,  as 
the  Tune  sung  by  our  Lord,  and  His  Apostles,  to  the 
Hymn  which  immediately  followed  the  Institution 
of  the  Last  Supper,  and  preceded  the  departure  of 
our  Saviour  to  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane. 

c  2 


20 


The  Gregorian  Tones.        [a.d.  590. 


It  is  needless  to  say,  that  none  of  these  traditions 
can  be  supported  by  direct  proof.  But,  the  argu- 
ments of  Mersenne,  Gerbert,  P.  Martini,  F.  Kircher, 
P.  Lambillote,  and  other  writers  who  have  devoted 
their  attention  to  the  elucidation  of  the  subject,  are 
too  strong  to  be  lightly  ignored,  and  far  more  rea- 
sonable than  the  idea,  entertained  by  some  learned 
modern  Musicians,  that  the  transmission  of  ancient 
Melodies  was  rendered  impossible  by  the  rude 
system  of  Semiography  adopted  by  S.  Gregory  and 
his  contemporaries. 


END  OF  THE  FIEST  BOOK. 


BOOK  THE  SECOND. 
MUSIC  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


i 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  CONDITION  OF  MUSIC  IN  THE  EAELY  MIDDLE  AGES. 
NOTATION.  DISCANT.  THE  INVENTION  OF  THE 
TIME-TABLE. 

We  have  seen  the  closing  years  of  the  4th  century 
illustrated  by  the  labours  of  S.  Ambrose,  and  those 
of  the  6th,  by  the  still  greater  work  accomplished 
by  S.  Gregory.  Midway  between  these  two  critical 
periods — i.e.  about  the  year  500 — the  progress  of 
Art  was  fatally  retarded  by  a  circumstance  which 
ought  to  have  tended  very  greatly  to  its  advance- 
ment— the  compilation  of  a  work  on  the  subject  by 
Boetius.  Of  Music  itself,  the  great  Statesman  knew 
absolutely  nothing.  He  simply  treated  it  as  a  branch 
of  Arithmetic.  For  the  materials  of  his  treatise  he 
was  indebted  entirely  to  the  Greek  authors  whose 
names  have  already  been  mentioned ;  but,  as  might 
naturally  have  been  expected,  he  misunderstood 
their  meaning,  continually,  even  to  the  extent  of 
mistaking  the  lower  sounds  of  the  scale  for  the 
upper  ones.    The  unfortunate  neglect  of  the  Greek 


24  Boetms.    Hucbaldics,         [a.d.  900. 

language  wliich  prevailed  so  generally  during  tlie 
greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  prevented  students 
who  were  really  seeking  after  the  truth  from  correct- 
ing his  errors  by  reference  to  original  authorities. 
Hence,  his  work,  De  Listitutione  Musica,  was  blindly 
received,  century  after  century,  as  a  text-book,  the 
contents  of  which  every  candidate  for  Academic 
Honours  in  Music  was  expected  to  know  by  heart, 
long  after  their  practical  worthlessness  had  been 
conclusively  demonstrated. 

JN'o  serious  attempt  to  introduce  a  more  rational 
system  seems  to  have  been  made  until  the  latter 
half  of  the  9th  century,  when  Hucbaldus,  a  Monk 
of  S.  Amand  sur  TElnon,  in  Flanders,  proposed  a 
new  division  of  the  Tetrachords,  made  a  rude  attempt 
at  the  arrangement  of  Vocal  Music  in  Parts,  and 
invented  a  system  of  Notation  more  explicit,  in  its 
details,  than  any  that  had  been  previously  attempted. 

Long  before  the  birth  of  Hucbaldus,  the  method 
of  Notation  adopted  by  S.  Gregory  had  given  place 
to  a  system  of  Semiography,  or  Sign- writing,  which 
indicated  the  places  in  which  a  given  Melody  was  to 
rise,  or  fall,  by  means  of  figures,  called  Neuma3, 
placed  above  the  words  to  which  the  Tune  was  sung. 
Unfortunately,  no  attempt  was  made  to  show  how 
far  the  Melody  was  to  ascend,  or  descend ;  conse- 
quently, the  Neumse  were  of  very  little  use  to 
singers  who  had  not  previously  learned  it  by  ear. 


A.D.  900.]      Early  Forms  of  Notation.  25 

The  following  example  of  this  rudimentaiy  form  of 
Xotation  is  from  a  MS.  formerly  in  the  possession 
of  P.  Martini. 


Prci^atli  toluiicn. 


Hucbald's  plan  was  much  clearer  than  this.  He 
wrote  the  words  of  his  Hymns  and  Antiphons  in  the 
spaces  enclosed  between  a  series  of  horizontal  lines, 
arranged  like  those  of  a  modern  Stave.  At  the 
beginning  of  each  space,  he  placed  a  sign,  accom- 
panied either  by  the  letter  T,  or  S,  (for  Tunus  or 
Seinitonium),  to  indicate  whether  the  voice  was  to 
proceed  by  a  Tone,  or  a  Semitone;  and,  by  this 
means,  he  was  able  to  express  each  Interval  of  the 
Melody  with  perfect  exactitude. 


T  

T  

T  Ec  Isra 


S  ce  he_ 

T  vere 


Solution. 


Ec-ce    ve-re  la-ra-s-U-ta 
Fig.  6. 


Hucbaldus  showed,  that,  by  increasing  the  number 


26       Diaphonia.    Discant,    Oi^gamtjn.  [a.d.  900. 

of  lines,  this  system  could  be  applied  to  a  Scale  of 
any  extent,  and  even  used  for  two,  three,  or  four 
voices,  singing  at  the  same  time  :  but,  notwithstand- 
ing its  numerous  advantages,  the  method  seems 
never  to  have  been  used,  after  the  death  of  its 
inventor,  whose  rude  attempts  at  Part-writing  were 
not,  however,  destined  to  be  so  soon  forgotten. 

From  a  very  early  period,  it  had  been  the  custom 
to  accompany  the  penultimate  note  of  a  Plain-Ohaunt 
melody  with  a  Minor  Third ;  after 
the  manner  still  innocently  prac- 
tised by  amateurs,  when  they  '  put 
in  a  second,'  by  ear. 

To  the  Minor  Third  were  speedily  added  the 
Octave,  the  Fifth,  and  the  Fourth.  A  Plain  Chaunt 
Melody,  accompanied  by  these  intervals,  was  called 
Diaphonia,  or  Discant — in  French,  Decliant — because 
it  was  sung  by  two  voices.  The  facility  with  which 
it  could  be  played  upon  the  organ  also  procured  for 
it  the  name  of  Organum ;  though,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  was  always  sung  extempore,  without  any 
form  of  accompaniment.  The  Clerks  who  sang  it 
were  called  Organisers,  and  received  high  pay  for 
their  services.  Ducange  quotes  a  Necrologium  of 
the  13th  century, — in  which  it  is  decreed  that  the 
four  Organisers  of  the  Alleluia  shall  receive  two 
pence  each. 

Hucbald  is  the  earliest  writer  who  gives  us  any 


A.D.  1000.] 


Giddo  d'Arezzo, 


27 


intelligible  rules  for  the  construction  of  a  continuous 
Organinn.  It  must  be  admitted  thvat  his  rules  are 
framed  in  direct  opposition  to  those  now  in  force ; 
and,  that  strict  obedience  to  them  would  produce 
results  absolutely  intolerable  to  the  modem  ear. 
But  this  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  he 
still  adhered  to  the  Pythagorean  Section  of  the 
Canon,  which  made  the  most  harmonious  of  all 
intervals — Thirds,  and  Sixths — so  hideously  out  of 
tune,  that  all  possible  pains  was  taken  to  avoid  them. 

Hucbald  died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  the  year 
930.  His  most  talented  contemporaries  were, 
Xotkerus,  Abbot  of  S.  Gall,  S.  Odo,  of  Cluny,  and 
S.  Remi,  of  Auxerre.  The  greatest  of  his  immediate 
successors  was,  unquestionably,  Guido  d'Arezzo ;  a 
Benedictine  Monk,  of  Pomposa,  whose  writings 
throw  an  important  light  upon  the  condition  of 
Music,  during  the  later  decads  of  the  10th  century, 
and  the  earlier  half  of  the  11th.  It  was  once  the 
custom  to  attribute  to  Guido  every  important  dis- 
covery, the  exact  date  of  which  was  unknown,  or 
even  doubtful.  To  him  we  were  said  to  have  been 
indebted  for  the  invention  of  Counterpoint,  Solmi- 
sation,  the  Stave,  the  Hexachords,  the  Harmonic 
(or  Guidonian)  Hand,  the  Monochord,  and  even  the 
Clavier.  Some  modern  critics,  rushing  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  deny  that  he  invented  anything  at  all. 
The  truth  Hes,  probably,  between  the  two  opinions. 


28 


Solmisation. 


A.D.  lOOO. 


We  know  that  he  invented  Solmisation — the  appli- 
cation of  certain  syllables  to  the  Degrees  of  the 
Scale,  in  snch  a  manner  as  to  relieve  the  learner 
from  any  serious  difficulties.  In  a  letter,  written  to 
his  friend,  Brother  Michael,  about  the  year  1025,  he 
calls  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  first  six  sections 
of  the  Hymn,  Vi  qiieant  laxis,  (sung  on  the  Festival 
of  S.  John  the  Baptist),  begin  with  six  different 
notes  of  the  Scale,  taken  in  regular  ascending  order. 
The  syllables  sung  to  these  notes  are  the  well 
known  Ut,  Ee,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  which  have  been  in 
use  from  the  11th  century  to  the  present  day ;  and 
we  certainly  owe  the  idea  of  employing  them  as  a 
convenient  form  of  memoria  technica^  to  Guide. 
In  exemplification  of  his  scheme,  we  give  the  first 
verse  of  the  Hymn  entire,  in  modern  Notation. 


UT     que  -  ant 

lax    -    is      RE  .  so 

na  -  re      fi  - 

bris 

— <i    o  ^-^  G>  ^  — - 

^e^o  

C3 

MI  -  -  ra   ges- to-rum  FA-mu-li    tu  -  o-rum   SOL  -   ve  pol-lu-ti 


^^^^ 

LA  -  bi  -  i     re  -  a  -  -  tuni     Sane  -  te     lo  -  han  -  nes. 


Fig.  8. 


In  Italy,  the  syllable,  Do,  is  now  substituted  for 
Ut ;  and,  after  the  completion  of  the  modern  Scale, 
the  syllable,  SI,  was  adapted  to  the  Seventh  Degree  : 


A.D.  lOOO.] 


The  Hexachords. 


29 


but,  in  all  other  respects,  we  use  the  syllables,  now, 
exactly  as  they  were  used  800  years  ago. 

Tradition  says,  that,  in  order  to  remove  the  incon- 
venience connected  with,  the  Greek  Tetrachords, 
Guido  divided  the  Scale  into  groups  of  six  sounds, 
called  Hexachords,  adapting  his  syllables  to  them, 
by  means  of  certain  changes,  called  Mutations,  and 
thus  providing  a  fixed  nomenclature  for  the  entire 
system,  which  he  exemplified  on  the  finger-joints  of 
the  Harmonic  Hand.^  He  does  not  tell  us  this,  in 
any  work  now  extant ;  but  he  does  say,  in  his  letter 
to  Brother  Michael,  '  These  things,  though  difficult  to 
write  about,  are  very  easily  explained  by  word  of 
mouth,'  and  this  remark  certainly  does  not  tend  to 
weaken  the  force  of  the  unvarying  and  immemorial 
tradition. 

Tradition  also  assures  us  that  Guido  invented 
the  Stave ;  but  here,  again,  though  there  is  strong 

^  The  Hexachords  were  of  three  kinds;  (1),  the  Natural  Hexa- 
chord — Hexachordon  naturale — representing  the  first  six  sounds  of 
the  Scale  of  C  ;  (2),  the  Hard  Hexachord — Hexachordon  duimm — 
formed  by  the  first  six  sounds  of  the  Scale  of  G ;  and  (3),  the  Soft 
Hexachord — Hexachordon  nwlle — or  first  six  sounds  of  the  Scale 
of  F,  including  a  B|^.  The  first  note  of  each  Hexachord  was  sung 
to  the  syllable,  Ut ;  and  as,  in  the  collective  scheme,  the  Hexa- 
chords overlapped,  this  fact  gave  rise  to  a  little  complication  in  the 
system  of  nomenclature,  which,  however,  is  rendered  sufficiently 
clear  by  the  subjoined  diagram,  the  last  column  of  which — headed 
'  The  Gamut ' — gives  the  full  name  of  every  note  in  the  series. 
These  names  were  in  common  use,  in  England,  in  the  18th  century; 


30  The  Hexachords.  [a.d.  iooo. 

reason  for  believing  that  lie  contributed  towards 
its  invention,  it  is  certain  that  he  did  not  bring  it  to 
perfection. 

The  system  of  Hucbald  died,  as  we  have  said,  with 
its  originator.  Musicians  seem  to  have  instinctively 
felt  that  the  older  system  of  Neumse,  which  it  was 
intended  to  supplant,  promised  still  greater  ad- 
vantages than  the  newer  one.  And  it  did.  The 
first  improvement  upon  the  primitive  form  shown 

and,  as  late  as  1740,  were  tauglit  to  Dr.  Bumey — then  fourteen 
years  old — by  the  Organist  of  Chester  Cathedral. 


VL 
Hex. 
Moll. 

VII. 

Hex. 
Dur. 

The 
Gamut. 

E  La 

Ela. 

D  La 

D  Sol 

D  la  sol. 

V. 

Hex. 
Nat. 

C  Sol 

C  Fa 

C  sol  fa. 

Bb  Fa 

BP  Mi 

B  fa  {acut.)  B  mi  i^acut.) 

A  La 

A  Mi 

A  Re 

A  la  mi  re  {acutum). 

IV. 
Hex. 
Dur. 

G  Sol 

G  Re 

GUt 

G  sol  re  ut  {acutum). 

HI. 

Hex. 
Moll. 

F  Fa 

FUt 

F  fa  ut  {acutum). 

E  La 

E  Mi 

E  la  mi  {acutum). 

D  La 

D  Sol 

D  Re 

D  la  sol  re. 

II. 

Hex. 
Nat. 

C  Sol 

CFa 

C  Ut 

C  sol  fa  ut. 

B5  Fa 

BQ  Mi 

B  fa.    B  mi. 

A  La 

AMI 

A  Re 

A  la  mi  re. 

I. 

GSol 

G  Be 

GUt 

G  sol  re  ut. 

Hex. 
Dur. 

F  Fa 

FUt 

F  fa  ut. 

E  La 

E  Mi 

E  la  mi. 

D  Sol 

D  Re 

D  sol  re. 

C  Fa 

C  Ut 

C  fa  ut. 

B  Mi 

B  mi. 

A  Be 

A  re. 

r  Ut 

rut. 

Fig.  9 


A.D.  looo.]     The  Origin  of  the  Stave,  31 

in  Fig.  5,  page  25,  consisted  in  drawing  a  red  line 
horizontally  across  tlie  paper,  and  using  it  as  a 
support  for  the  Neumse.  Simple  as  this  expe- 
dient seems,  it  represents  one  of  the  most  valuable 
contributions  to  musical  technology  that  has  ever 
been  made,  and  contains  within  itself  the  germ  of 
all  that  is  most  enduring,  most  logical,  and  most 
practically  useful,  in  our  present  perfect  system  of 
Notation.  The  secret  of  its  value  lay  in  this — that 
every  Neuma  placed  upon  the  red  line  was  under- 
stood to  represent  the  note  F.  Here,  then,  was 
the  position  of  one  note  absolutely  fixed.  A  Neuma 
close  above  the  line  naturally  represented  G,  and 
one  close  below  it,  E.  Others,  placed  at  a  greater 
distance  above,  represented  A,  or  B ;  those  placed 
farther  below  denoted  D,  or  0.  The  following 
example  was  first  brought  to  light  by  P.  Martini. 
It  demonstrates  the  system  very  clearly ;  but, 
unfortunately,  its  full  force  cannot  be  shown  without 
the  red  colour. 

Probable  tolution. 


The  next  improvement  was,  the  addition  of  a 


32  The  Origin  of  the  Stave,     [a.d.  looo. 

yellow  line,  at  a  little  distance  above  tlie  red  one. 
This  line  represented  C  :  consequently,  a  note  placed 
exactly  midway  between  the  two  lines  must  neces- 
sarily represent  A ;  and,  in  carefully-written  MSS, 
the  position  of  the  rest  was  far  less  doubtful  than 
before.  The  subjoined  example  was  also  first 
published  by  P.  Martini,  who  possessed  a  magnificent 
collection  of  mediaeval  MSS. 


Po  -  pu  -  -  -  •    le     me  u» 

Fig.  IL 


The  next  step  was  an  easier  one.  It  consisted 
in  adding  two  black  lines,  one,  half  way  between 
the  red  and  yellow  ones,  and  the  other,  at  a  little 
distance  above  the  yellow  line.  This  done,  the 
Stave  of  four  lines  was  complete ;  and  so  perfectly 
did  it  answer  its  intended  purpose,  that  it  not  only 
remained  in  common  use,  until  the  invention  of 
printing,  but  is  even  used,  for  Plain  Chaunt,  at  the 
present  day. 

Guido  d'Arezzo  has  been  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  the  red,  the  yellow,  and  the  two  black 
lines;  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  two  first 


A.D.  looo.]      The  Origin  of  the  Clefs. 


33 


were  in  use,  before  his  time,  and  no  example  of  tlie 
last  has  yet  been  satisfactorily  traced  back  to  the 
earlier  half  of  the  11th  century. 

It  will  be  seen,  that,  in  Fig.  10,  the  letter  F  is 
prefixed  to  the  single  line — red,  in  the  original 
MS;  and  that,  in  Fig.  11,  the  upper  (yellow)  line 
is  distinguished  by  a  Gothic  x).  This  was  often  the 
case,  when  the  lines  were  coloured;  and  always,  in 
MSS  written  wholly  in  black.  And  thus  arose  the 
characters  called  Clefs,  {0 laves),  which,  originating 
in  the  letters  F,  C,  and  G,  passed  through  an  infinity 
of  changes,  before  they  reached  the  forms  now  in 
common  use. 

F  Clefs. 


C  Clefa. 


G  Cle^e. 


Fig.  12. 

The  four-lined  Stave,  and  the  Clefs,  made  all 
needful  provisions  for  distinguishing  the  pitch  of 
written  points  with  perfect  exactitude ;  but  none 
for  regulating  their  proportionate  duration.  The 
notes  of  Plain  Chaunt  were  all  of  equal  length, 
except  where  the  singers  dwelt  upon  them,  for  the 
sake  of  emphasising  the  sense  of  the  verbal  text. 
But,  as  Discant  and  Organum  advanced  towards 


34         Franco,    Franchinus  Gaftiriiis.  [a.d.  1300. 

perfection,  it  became  necessary  to  regulate  the 
length  of  the  notes  employed ;  and  thus  arose  a 
new  form  of  Music,  called  Measured  Chaunt — 
Gantus  mensurahilis.  The  earliest  known  writer  on 
this  subject  was  Franco  of  Cologne,  who  is  believed 
to  have  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century.^  Franco  mentions  only  four  kinds  of 
notes ;  the  Double  Long,  or  Large,  (Dujylex  longa, 
vel  Maxima,  ■■■j ) ;  the  Long,  {Longa,  ^\^^  ' 
the  Breve,  (B  rev  is,  B)  ;  and  the  Semibreve,  (Semi- 
brevis,  or  ^.).  To  these,  later  writers  added 
the  Minim  (Minima) ;  the  Greater  Semi-Minim,  now 
known  as  the  Crotchet,  (Semiminima) ;  the  Lesser 
Semi-Minim,  now  called  the  Quaver,  (Croma) ;  and 
the  Semi-Croma,  or  Semiquaver,  {Semicroma,  Bis- 
croma.)  After  the  invention  of  printing,  the  black 
forms  of  these  notes  gave  place  to  white  ones ; 
black  notes  being  thenceforward  called  '  full,'  and 
white  ones,  'void.'  The  forms  given,  with  their 
corresponding  rests,  in  the  Pradica  Musicce  of 
Franchinus  Gafurius,  printed,  at  Milan,  in  1496 — 
one  of  the  earliest  treatises  on  Music  ever  issued 
from  the  press — remained  in  common  use,  until 
they  were  replaced  by  our  present  round-headed 
notes,  in  the  17th  century. 

^  Xot  to  "be  confounded — as  Kiesewetter  has  clearly  shown — 
•with  Franco  of  Liege,  who  flourished  about  the  year  1060.  The 
identity  of  these  two  learned  "sviiters  has  been  hotly  disputed. 


A.D.  1400.]  The  Origin  of  the  Time-Table.  35 


Ifinim,  Semi- 


Semi-  Semi. 


Perfect  Imperfect  Perfect  Imperfect  g^^^^  Semibreve 
Larse  Lar?e  Lon?  Long  ^  „ 


Minim  Rest,  or  ^I'TZfT'- 

o  ;  ■  .  '  minim  Rest,  or 

Suspmum.  Semisuspirium. 


Croma  Rest.  Semicroma 


I 


Fig. 13 


Of  the  Large,  Long,  Breve,  and  Semibreve,  there 
were  two  kinds  ;  the  Perfect — so  named,  bj  Franco, 
in  honour  of  the  Ever  Blessed  Trinity — and  the 
Imperfect.  Every  Perfect  Note  was  equal  to  three 
notes  of  the  next  lesser  denomination :  every  Im- 
perfect Note,  to  two,  only.  From  this  arrangement 
sprang  the  rhythmic  forms  called  Perfect  and  Im- 
perfect Time ;  the  former  being  the  natural  homo- 
logue  of  our  modern  Triple  Time,  while  the  latter 
answers  to  the  Common — i.  e.  Duple,  or  Quadruple 
— Time  of  modern  Music.  Perfect  Time  was 
denoted  by  a  circle — Qj  or  (|) — the  most  perfect  of 
fiocures — a  sio^n  which  has  not  been  in  use  since  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century.  Imperfect  Time 
was  denoted  by  a  semicircle— C,  or  0 — which  sign 
still  remains  in  general  use,  and  bearing  always  the 
same  signification.  These  broad  principles  were 
associated  with  extremely  complex  arrangements  of 
detail,  which,  under  the  names  of  Mode,  and  Pro- 
lation,  enabled  mediaeval  musicians  to  express  every 

D  2 


36 


Mode,  Time  J  and  Prolation.  [a.d.  1400. 


kind  of  rhythmic  proportion  with  as  much  certainty 
as  we  are  able  to  express  it  now,  though  the 
machinery  with  which  they  worked  was  so  cumbrous, 
that  it  cost  half  a  life-time  to  master  its  details. 
The  processes  were  difficult ;  but,  their  difficulty  once 
surmounted,  the  results  left  nothing  to  be  desired.^ 
And  now,  having  traced  the  history  of  Notation, 
from  the  rude  forms  of  Semiography  practised  by 
S.  Gregory,  to  a  system  so  perfect,  that  when,  in 
later  times,  a  new  need  arose,  all  that  was  necessary 
for  its  expression  Vas,  the  addition  of  a  new  sign 
to  those  already  in  use ;  having  reached  a  point  at 
which  no  bar  prevented  farther  progress ;  it  is  time 
that  we  should  consider  the  kind  of  Music  for  the 
expression  of  which  the  new  system  of  Notation  was 
invented. 

'  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  farther  are  referred  to 
the  author's  article,  JSTotation,  in  Sir  George  Grove's  '  Dictionary 
of  Music  and  Musicians.' 


CHAPTER  lY. 


COXCEEXIXG  THE  TEOUBADOUES,  THE  MINSTEELS,  AND 
THE  MINNESINGEES. 

From  tlie  earliest  period  of  wliicli  we  possess  any 
authentic  record,  two  styles  of  Music— the  Ecclesias- 
tical, and  the  Secular — have  been  practised,  side  by 
side,  in  every  country  in  Christendom. 

Ecclesiastical  Music,  cultivated  almost  exclusively 
by  the  Clergy,  attained  its  first  definite  expression 
in  Plain  Chaunt.  The  Psalm-Tones,  Antiphons, 
and  Hymns,  collected  by  S.  Ambrose  and  S.  Gre- 
gory, were  speedily  supplemented  by  farther  collec- 
tions of  Introits,  Graduals,  Offertoria,  and  other 
portions  of  the  Mass,  and  the  Daily  Office,  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  a  gorgeous 
festal  Ritual. 

Secular  Music,  on  the  other  hand,  was  cultivated 
almost  entirely  by  the  laity.  The  Art  of  Minstrelsy 
is  generally  believed  to  have  originated  in  Toulouse, 
where  from  the  11th  century  downwards,  the  Trou- 
badours were  treated  with  peculiar  honour.  From 


38  The  Troubadours,         [a.d.  J200. 

the  Soutli  of  France,  and  the  Spanish  border,  it 
spread  to  central  France,  to  Normandy,  across  the 
Channel  to  England,  and,  in  a  north-easterly  direc- 
tion, to  Flanders.  From  Italy,  where  it  found  a 
home  in  very  earJy  times,  it  soon  penetrated  to 
Germany;  and,  in  process  of  time,  it  exercised  a 
humanising  influence  over  the  whole  of  Christendom. 
The  Troubadours  and  Minstrels  were  generally  of 
noble,  and  sometimes  even  of  Royal  birth.  One  of 
the  earliest  names  recorded  is  that  of  Guilleaum  de 
Poictiers,  who  flourished  between  the  years  1087 
and  1127.  His  most  noted  successors  were.  Pier 
and  Delfin  d'Auvergne,  Henri  de  Bourgogne,  Jean 
de  Brienne,  Adam  de  la  Hale,  Guicelm  Faidit, 
Guirault  de  Cabreira,  Eaoul,  Chatelain  de  Coucy, 
Guilleaume  Machaud,  and  Guiraut  de  Calanson.  In 
England,  special  mention  is  made  of  Maklebit  of 
Winchester,  Blakesmit,  Master  John — surnamed 
Filius  Dei,  and  one  never  to  be  forgotten,  Blondel, 
the  faithful  page  of  King  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion. 
Of  reigning  Sovereigns,  the  most  celebrated  were. 
King  Richard  himself,  Thibaut,  King  of  Navarre, 
Alfonso  lY.,  King  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  Alfonso 
X.,  Pedro  III.,  and  Pedro  lY.,  and,  in  Italy,  Azzo 
d'Este — husband  of  the  ill-fated  Parisina. 

It  will  be  readily  imderstood,  that  Troubadours 
of  this  exalted  rank  rarely  found  an  opportunity  of 
singing  their  own  compositions,    As  a  general  rule 


A.D.  I200.]  M ills tr els y  and  Minnesingers,  39 

tliey  committed  this  duty  to  certain  men  of  inferior 
grade,  called,  in  France,  Jongleurs,  in  England, 
Gleemen  ;  accomplislied  singers,  and  players  on 
various  instruments,  but,  neither  poets,  nor  com- 
posers. In  Germany,  however,  this  practice  met 
with  little  favour.  The  Minnesinger — as  he  was 
there  called — sang  his  own  Romances,  however 
high  might  be  his  social  rank.  The  most  celebrated 
German  Minnesingers  were  Friedrich  I.,  and  II.,  von 
Hohenstaufen,  the  murdered  Conradin — beheaded, 
at  Naples,  in  1267,  by  order  of  Charles  d'Anjou, 
at  the  age  of  fifteen — the  Emperor,  Heinrich  VI., 
Heinrich  von  Breslau,  the  Landgraf,  Hermann  von 
Thiiringen,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  Walther  von 
der  Vogelweide,  the  joyous  Frauenlob,  whose  tomb, 
filled,  on  the  day  of  his  funeral,  with  wine,  may 
still  be  seen,  in  perfect  preservation,  at  Mainz, 
Heinrich  von  Zwetschin,  Heinrich  Schreiber,  Bitter- 
rolff,  and  the  worthy  burger  of  Eisenach,  Heinrich 
von  Ofterdingen. 

These  worthies  flourished  during  the  period  known 
to  historians  as  the  epoch  of  the  Bitter  Poesie — the 
Knightly  Poetry,  which  ennobled  every  theme  it 
treated,  and  elevated  the  love  of  Woman  to  the 

^  It  is  sad  to  be  obliged  to  supplement  the  names  of  these  noble 
Minstrels  by  that  of  Charles  d'Anjou,  King  of  Sicily — the 
assassin  of  the  young  Emperor,  Conradin.  In  this  case,  the 
practice  of  the  gentle  Art  did  not  tend  to  humanize  the  student. 


40  The  Meister singers,       [a.d.  1300. 

dignity  of  a  pure  and  holy  religion.    This  was  des- 
tined to  give  place,  during  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
to  the  Bilrger  Poesie — a  less  chiyalric  form  of  Art, 
cultivated  by  the  Meistersinger,  or  Master- Singers, 
whose  various  Guilds  were  crowded  with  recruits 
supplied  by  the  burgesses  and  craftsmen  of  the 
larger  German  towns.    The  most  important  centres 
of  the  Meistersingers'  Art  were,  Mainz,  Nurem- 
berg,  Augsburg,   Ulm,    Strassburg,  Regensburg, 
Munich,  and  Prague ;  and  its  brightest  ornament 
was  the  famous  Hans  Sachs,  the    shoemaker  of 
Nuremberg.    Similar  Guilds  existed  in  England — 
notably,  at  Beverley,  and  Tutbury.    We  hear  of  the 
presence  of  a  multitude  of  Minstrels  at  the  Court  of 
King  Edward  T.,  when  the  young  Prince  Edward  was 
knighted;  and,  at  Tutbury  Castle,  John  of  Gaunt 
issued,  in  1381,  an  edict,  authorizing  the  election  of 
a  '  King  of  the  Minstrels,'  every  year,  on  the  Feast 
of  the  Assumption.    In  France,  also,  the  Minstrels 
claimed  the  right  of  electing  a  Boij  des  menestriers, 
who  enjoyed  important  privileges,  and  whose  title 
was  changed,  in  more  recent  times,  to  that  of  Boi 
des    Violons.     The   first  Borj  des  menestriers  of 
whom  certain  mention  is  made  was  Jean  Charmillon, 
whose  election  was  confirmed,  by  Philip  le  Bel,  in 
1295. 

But,  the  power  of  Song  extended  its  sway  much 
farther  than  this.    Having  passed  from  the  Knight 


A.D.  1300.] 


National  Melodies, 


41 


to  the  burgess,  from  the  noble  Troubadour,  to  the 
well-to-do  Meistersinger,  it  was  impossible  that 
it  should  pause  until  it  had  brought  its  beneficent 
influence  to  bear  upon  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 
And,  among  the  people,  arose,  in  England,  the 
National  Song ;  in  France,  the  Chanson  populaire ; 
in  Germany,  the  VolJcslied.  Each  country  has  its 
own  style  of  National  Music ;  and,  in  every  country, 
that  style  serves  as  a  reflex  of  the  manners  of  the 
people,  and  their  mode  of  thought.  The  Folk-Songs 
of  Scotland,  or  Ireland,  are  recognisable  by  every- 
one ;  and  a  practised  ear  can  distinguish  those  of 
any  other  country  with  equal  facility.  In  the  time 
of  the  Crusades,  the  Troubadours  and  Minstrels  of 
all  countries  were  brought  into  constant  and  familiar 
intercourse ;  and,  as  all  Minstrels  of  gentle  birth 
based  their  Romances  upon  the  laws  of  Chivalry, 
which,  to  them,  represented  all  that  was  good,  and 
noble,  and  beautiful,  in  life,  a  certain  general  simi- 
larity of  tone — if  not  of  local  colouring — found 
its  way  into  all  their  productions.  But,  with 
the  Folk-Song,  properly  so-called,  this  form  of 
amalgamation  never  prevailed.  Except  in  the  case 
of  conquered  countries,  nationalities  did  not  mix, 
in  the  Middle  Ages ;  consequently,  the  style  of  a 
people's  Melodies  remained — and  still  remains — as 
distinctly  marked  as  its  manners,  or  the  fashion  of 
its  dress. 


42  National  Melodies,         [a.d.  1300. 

Tliese  remarks,  however,  apply  to  the  Melodies 
onlj.  We  have  yet  to  follow  out  the  process  by 
means  of  which  these  Melodies — whether  Ecclesias- 
tical, or  Secular — were  clothed  in  appropriate  and 
beautiful  Harmony. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  INVENTION  OF  COUNTEEPOINT. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  tliat  Musicians,  who  had 
once  heard  any  kind  of  Harmony,  would  be  content 
to  leave  the  Organiim,  Diaphonia,  or  Discant,  of  the 
11th  century,  in  the  condition  in  which  it  was 
bequeathed  to  them  by  Hucbald,  or  Guido.  True, 
the  examples  left  by  these  pioneers  of  Art  were  not 
very  pleasant  to  listen  to;  as  the  following  Anti- 
phon,  by  Hucbald,  will  sufficiently  demonstrate. 


HUCBALDUS  DE  S.  AMANDO. 


h-^.  ^    rj  ^  r^f^—^,  r^-r^-\  \ 

^             -g^-  -e^.                              CJ    ^.   ^  .cy- 
Sit        glo   -    ri    -    a      Do  -  mi  -  ni     in     see  -  cu  -  la. 

— G>  ^  <E^  <5>  ^  ^  G>  <^  <S)  1 1 

^  o  g— ^3  ^  ^  ^  ^ — rzr—^    G    ^  \\ 

Fig.  14. 


And  the  first  attempts  to  improve  these  frightful 
successions  of  Fourths,  Fifths,  and  Octaves,  were 
still  more  intolerable.  Witness  the  following  Litamj 
for  the  Dead,  which  was  extremely  popular,  in  the 
Middle  Ages. 


44        LitanicB  mortuorum  discordantes.  [a.d.  1300. 


Litanice  morticorum  discordanies. 


1 

 ' 

1  1 

 0  -ri  ' 

1 

Gh-^G—^  ^ 

1        1  P 

-&r,  Q         Q  ^ 

1     1     I  1 

1    i  1 

De   pro  -  fun  -  dis  cla  -  ma  -  vi     ad    te    Do    -    -    -    mi  -  ne. 


Fig.  15. 

An  attempt  was  made,  some  years  since,  by  Dr. 
0.  Paul,  to  defend  tlie  taste  of  Hucbald,  and  liis  con- 
temporaries, by  suggesting  that  tlie  four  vocal  parts 
shown  in  Ex.  14,  and  other  similar  passages,  were 
intended  to  be  sung  singly,  one  after  the  other,  and 
not  in  the  form  of  a  quadruple  Harmony.  The  sug- 
gestion, though  directly  opposed  to  facts  which  can- 
not be  disputed,  has  not  been  without  supporters ; 
yet  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  its  originator  can 
really  have  read  the  venerable  treatises  in  which  the 
whole  process  of  constructing  such  a  quadruple 
Harmony  is  laid  down  in  terms  which  can  admit  of 
no  possible  misunderstanding.  Moreover,  the  Litany 
for  the  Deadi  though  infinitely  more  discordant  than 
anything  that  Hucbald  ever  wrote,  was  sung,  and 
admired,  even  in  the  time  of  Franchinus  Gafurius, 
as  he  himself  tells  us.  Still,  there  have  been  refined 
ears,  in  all  ages  ;  and  musicians,  possessing  such 
ears,  did  actually  succeed  in  working  out  for  them- 
selves a  better  state  of  things.  Among  other  im- 
provements, they  adopted  the  custom  of  writing 
down  their  compositions,  instead  of  singing  them 
extempore  ;  for  which  reason  their  work  was  called 


A.D.  1300.]  The  Origin  of  Counterpoint,  45 

ContTa2mnctuSi  or  Counterpoint,  in  allusion  to  the 
practice  of  writing  down  the  points,  or  notes,  counter 
to,  or  over,  or  against,  eacli  other.  The  word  if5 
first  found  in  the  writings  of  Gerson,  Chancellor  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  about  the  year  1408 ;  after 
which  it  was  exclusively  applied  to  written  Counter- 
point ;  that  which  was  sung  extempore  being  still 
called  Organum,  Discantus,  or  Biaphonia — or,  if  for 
more  than  two  voices,  Triplionia,  or  Tetraphonia. 

The  invention  of  Counterpoint  led  to  extraordi- 
nary improvements,  both  in  Ecclesiastical,  and 
Secular  Music. 

It  has  long  been  supposed  that  the  first  applica- 
tion of  Counterpoint  to  Plain  Chaunt  found  its 
expression  in  the  Faux  bourdon— -the  Falso  bordone 
of  the  Italians,  and  the  Fa  burden  of  Morley,  and 
other  English  writers  :  and,  that  this  made  its  first 
appearance,  in  the  Church,  during  the  time  at  which 
the  Chair  of  S.  Peter  was  transferred  from  Kome,  to 
Avignon — that  is  to  say,  between  the  years  1305, 
and  1377.  The  Faux  bourdon  is,  undoubtedly,  one 
of  the  very  earliest  of  contrapuntal  forms ;  and  it 
was  undoubtedly  sung,  in  the  Papal  Choir,  at 
Avignon.  But,  a  beautifully-written  MS.,  once  the 
property  of  the  great  Benedictine  Abbey  at  Reading, 
and  now  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  contains 
four  Latin  Motets,  for  three  and  four  voices,  in 
highly-developed  vocal  Harmony,  which  were  most 


46 


yohn  of  Fornsete. 


[a.d.  1226. 


probably  composed  before  the  year  1226,  and  quite 
certainly  transcribed,  by  one  of  the  Monks  of  Read- 
ing, known  as  John  of  Fornsete,  not  more  than  ten 
years  after  that  date.  In  some  cases,  the  additional 
parts  are  written  in  a  somewhat  later,  though  still 
very  early  hand,  of  the  13th  century;  but,  one  of 
tlie  Motets — Ave  gloriosa  Mater — was  written,  in 
the  first  instance,  in  complete  score,  for  three  voices, 
and  a  fourth  part,  called  Quadruplum,  added  to  it, 
afterwards,  by  a  later  transcriber.  The  Reading 
MS.  proves,  then,  beyond  all  doubt,  that  highly- 
developed  Motets  were  sung,  in  England,  nearly  a 
century  before  the  removal  of  the  Papal  See  to 
Avignon,  and  a  full  century  and  a  half  before  the  date 
usually  assigned  to  the  introduction  of  the  Faux 
hoiirdon  by  Flemish  Singers  attached  to  the  Papal 
Choir. 

The  Faux  bourdon  W2iS  accompanied  entirely  by 
Thirds,  and  Sixths,  except  in  its  first  and  last  notes ; 
and  therefore  made  very  pleasant  Harmony,  com- 
pared with  the  earlier  forms,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  examples. 

lOHANNES  DE  TlNCTORIS. 

p:^^z=z:^z=:g2=:^^3::;7-=:^=|] 


i 


 — 

Lau  -  da      Si  -  on      Sal  -  va  -  to  -  rem. 

Fig.  16. 


A.D.  1226.] 


The  Reading  MS. 


47 


Franchinus  Gafttrius. 


n 

— ^ 



Fig.  17. 


From  these  humble  beginnings,  arose,  by  slow 
degrees,  a  style  of  Ecclesiastical  Music  so  inex- 
pressibly beautiful,  that,  since  it  was  brought  to 
perfection  by  Palestrina — of  whose  life,  and  works, 
we  shall  speak,  in  a  later  chapter — no  form  of  com- 
position has  equalled  it,  either  in  its  devotional  effect, 
or  its  fitness  for  the  services  of  the  Church. 

ISTo  less  remarkable  was  the  influence  exercised  by 
Counterpoint  upon  Secular  Music.  And  it  is  quite 
certain  that  the  earliest  known  example  of  this  kind 
of  Music,  also,  was  composed  in  England.  Besides 
the  Motets  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made, 
the  Reading  MS.  contains  a  Rota,  or  Round,  written 
in  the  form  of  a  Canon,  for  six  voices,  wonderfully 
free  from  harmonic  defects,  considering  the  early 
date  at  which  it  was  produced,  and  as  melodious  as 
an  Italian  Villanella  of  the  best  period — a  veritable 
Spring-Song,  sparkling,  and  graceful,  as  if  it  had 
been  written  but  yesterday,  and  breathing,  in  every 
bar,  the  poetry  of  a  bright  May-morning,  with  its 
fragrant  blossoms,  and  joyous  carols,  dominated, 
throughout,  by  the  welcome  voice  of  the  Cuckoo, 


48 


Sume7^  is  iczimen  in,        [a.d.  1226. 


proclaiming  that '  the  winter  is  past,  the  rain  is  over 
and  gone,  the  flowers  appear  on  the  earth;  and 
the  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come.'  And 
this,  written,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  in  the 
year  1226 — a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  at  least,  before 
Guilielmns  Dufay  founded  the  First  Flemish  School, 
and  first  openly  taught  the  principle  of  regular 
Composition.^ 

The  words  of  the  Bjota  are  charmingly  quaint. 
The  first  verse  runs  thus — 

Sumer  is  icumen  in, 

Llmde  sing  cuccu. 
Groweth  sed,  and  blowetli  med, 

And  springth  the  wde  nu.  etc. 

In  modern  English — 

Summer  is  a  coming  in, 

Loud  sing  cuckoo. 
Groweth  seed,  and  bloweth  mead. 

And  springeth  the  wood  anew,  etc. 

In  addition  to  these  words,  the  mediaeval  tran- 
scriber has  inserted,  in  red  letters,  the  text  of  a 
Latin  Hymn,  of  which  the  first  verse  stands  thus — 

The  Rota  is  too  long  for  quotation,  as  an  example.  The  com- 
plete Score  will  be  found  in  Vol.  II.  of  Br.  Burney's  History,  and 
also  in  that  of  Sir  John  Hawkins.  A  faC'Simile  of  the  MS.  is 
given  in  Vol.  I.  of  Mr.  W.  Chappell's  '  Music  of  the  Olden  Time,' 
and  in  Vol.  III.  of  Sir  George  Grove's  '  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians.'  The  original  MS.,  in  the  British  Museum,  is  labelled, 
Harl.  MSS.,  No.  978. 


A.D.  I  226. J 


Sumer  is  icumen  in. 


49 


Perspice  Christicola, 

Quae  dignacio, 
Coelicus  agricola, 

Pro  yitis  vicio,  etc. 

The  st^^le  of  the  Melody  is,  however,  too  light  and 
trifling,  for  a  Hymn  to  the  Infant  Saviour ;  and  the 
Latin  words,  written,  in  red,  beneath  the  English 
verses,  are  evidently  an  after-thought,  though 
transcribed  by  the  same  hand. 

How  far  this  splendid  beginning  was  followed  up, 
in  England,  it  is  impossible  to  say ;  for,  unhappily, 
we  possess  no  other  MSS.  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal 
antiquity,  and  therefore  it  is,  that,  to  this  day, 
Flanders  is  regarded  as  the  true  birthplace  of 
musical  Composition,  while  England — very  unjustly, 
as  we  shall  hereafter  see — is  supposed  to  have  been 
indebted  to  her  for  all  she  afterwards  learned. 


E 


CHAPTER  YI. 


CONCEENING  THE  POLYPHONIC  SCHOOLS. 

Musical  critics  divide  tlie  various  Schools  of  Com- 
position into  four  distinct  classes :  the  Polyphonic, 
the  Monodic,  (or  Homophonic),  the  Polyodic,  and 
the  Modern. 

In  the  Polyphonic  Schools,  confined  exclusively  to 
unaccompanied  Vocal  Music,  the  parts,  whatever 
their  number,  were  all  of  equal  importance,  each 
taking  up  the  Subject,  in  its  turn,  and  all  working 
together,  for  the  general  effect. 

In  the  Monodic  Schools,  the  interest  was  con- 
fined to  one  single  part — the  Melody — which  was 
supported  by  the  simplest  possible  instrumental 
accompaniment. 

In  the  Polyodic  Schools,  the  importance  of  each 
vocal  part  was  again  recognized,  though  not  to  the 
extent  practised  by  the  Polyphonists ;  and  the 
general  harmony  was  supported  by  instrumental 
accompaniments,  sometimes  of  a  highly  elaborate 
character. 


A.D.  T380.]     The  Early  Fle77iish  Schools.  51 

In  the  Modern  Schools,  all  expedients  which 
conduce  to  a  good  general  effect  are  held  to  be 
not  only  permissible,  but  desirable,  in  the  highest 
degree :  and  composers  of  the  19th  century 
frequently  supplement  the  rich  resources  of  modern 
Art,  by  those  of  the  Polyphonia,  the  Monodia,  or 
the  Polyodia,  of  earlier  epochs. 

The  Polyphonic  Schools  were  the  earliest  in  which 
any  regularly-developed  form  was  clearly  recognised. 
The  probable  time,  and  place  of  their  origin  will  be 
discussed  in  a  future  chapter.  For  the  present, 
passing  over — though  never  forgetting — the  evi- 
dence afforded  by  the  Reading  MS.,  we  shall  find  it 
convenient  to  adopt  the  generally-adopted  classifica- 
tion, and  to  describe,  in  the  first  place,  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  early  Flemish  Schools. 

The  most  important  element  in  these,  as  in  all 
other  Schools  of  Composition,  is  Form.  Flemish 
composers  were  not  satisfied  with  the  simple 
sounds  of  Organum^  Biscant,  or  even  the  Faux- 
bourdon,  written,  note  for  note,  against  a  given 
Plain-Chaunt  Melody.  They  did,  indeed,  choose 
such  a  Melody  as  the  basis  of  their  operations ;  but 
their  method  of  treating  it  was  very  far  from  a 
simple  one.  Assigning  it,  under  the  name  of  Cantiis 
firmus,  Canto  fermo^  or  'Fixed  Tune'  to  one  single 
voice — nearly  always  the  Tenor — they  caused  the 
other  voices  to  sing  with  it,  in  complicated  passages, 

E  2 


52 


The  Early  Flemish  Schools,  [a.d.  1380. 


written  in  all  the  five  Orders  of  Counterpoint.^ 
Sometimes,  the  other  voices  imitated  the  notes  of 
the  Canto  fer mo ^  in  shorter  ones.  Sometimes,  one 
of  the  added  parts  started  a  new  Subject,  quite 
unlike  that  of  the  Canto  fermo^  though  moving  in 
agreeable  Harmony  with  it — in  which  case,  the  sub- 
sidiary voices  only  imitated  each  other,  leaving  the 
Canto  ferrno  to  itself.  But,  every  voice  imitated 
something;  and  so  the  composition  grew  to  be  a 
symmetrical  one,  working  out  a  pre-conceived  idea, 
and  discussing  a  chosen  theme,  just  as  a  chosen 
theme  is  discussed  in  a  well-arranged  discourse. 
A  regular  composition  can  no  more  exist,  without 
a  Subject,  than  an  intelligible  oration  can  be 
delivered  without  a  theme.  The  Xetherlanders  were 
the  first  to  discover  this — after  the  composers  of  the 
Bota  :  and,  so  true  was  the  principle  they  enunciated, 
that  it  has  formed  the  groundwork  of  every  School 
of  Composition,  from  their  day  to  our  own. 

^  The  arrangement  of  the  various  forms  of  Coimterpoint  in  five 
distinct  Orders  is  said  to  have  been  invented,  for  the  convenience 
of  his  pupils,  by  Fux,  Tvhose  Gradus  ad  Parnassum  was  first 
printed  in  1725.  The  Orders  are — I.  Plain  Counterpoint.  Note 
against  Note.  IL  Two  Is'otes  against  one.  III.  Four  Ts'otes 
against  one.  lY.  Counterpoint  in  Spicopated  notes.  V.  Florid 
Counterpoint ;  a  mixture  of  the  four  first  Orders.  Counterpoint 
in  all  these  Orders  was  used  in  com[)osition  of  remotest  antiquity, 
though  no  attempt  was  made  to  classify  them.  For  an  explanation 
of  the  laws  by  which  each  Order  is  governed,  see  ^The  Rules  of 
Counterpoint.'    (Cocks  and  Co.,  6,  Xew  Buiiington  Street.) 


A.D.  1443.]    The  Early  Flemish  Schools,  53 

The  founder  of  The  First  Flemish  School  was 
Guilielmus  Dufaj,  a  native  of  Chimaj,  in  Hennegau, 
who  is  believed  to  have  sung  in  the  Pontifical  Choir, 
at  Avignon,  and  to  have  migrated  thence  to  Eome, 
in  1377,  in  the  train  of  Pope  Gregory  XL  At  any 
rate,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  a  member  of  the  Choir 
as  early  as  1380,  and  remained  in  Rome,  from  that 
time,  until  his  death,  at  a  very  advanced  age,  in  1432. 
Many  of  his  works  are  preserved  among  the  Ai^chives 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  and  a  few  fragments  have 
been  printed.  Their  style,  like  that  of  his  disciples, 
Egydius  Bianchoys,  Vincenz  Faugues,  Egyd  Flanel 
(called  L' Enfant),  Jean  Redois,  Jean  de  Curte 
(called  L'Ami),  and  other  contemporary  writers,  is 
dry,  but  exceedingly  learned  and  ingenious. 

The  Second  Flemish  School  was  founded  by 
Joannes  Okenheim  (or,  Ockeghem),  also  a  native  of 
Hennegau,  and  a  disciple  of  Egydius  Bianchoys. 
His  style  was  more  elaborate,  by  far,  than  that  of 
Dufay,  and  characterised  by  marvellous  feats  of 
ingenuity,  which  were  imitated,  with  great  success, 
b}'  his  disciples,  and  contemporaries,  Antoine  Busnoys 
Jakob  Hobrecht,  Firmin  Caron,  Joannes  Regis,  and 
other  talented  composers,  whose  highest  ambition 
was,  to  rival  the  dexterity  of  their  leader.  We  first 
hear  of  Okenheim,  as  a  member  of  the  Choir,  at 
Antwerp  Cathedral,  in  1 443 .  He  afterwards  entered 
the  service  of  King  Charles  YII.  of  France;  and 


54  The  Ea7'ly  Flemish  Schools,  [a.d.  1500. 

died,  at  Tours,  in  1512.  Many  of  his  works  were 
printed,  early  in  the  16th  century,  by  Ottaviano  del 
Petrucci,  and  Grlareanus ;  and  several  have  lately 
reappeared  in  the  Appendix  to  Ambros's  Gescldchte 
der  Musih. 

Among  the  disciples  of  Okenheim  was  one  whose 
brilliant  genius  raised  Flemish  Art  to  a  level  above 
which  it  was  never  afterwards  destined  to  rise. 
Josquin  des  Pres,^  the  founder  of  The  Third  Flemish 
School,  was  born,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, at  S.  Quentin ;  and  began  his  Art-life  as  a 
Chorister,  in  the  Cathedral  of  that  town.  Okenheim 
taught  him  all  that  it  was  possible  to  teach  a  more 
talented  musician  than  himself ;  but,  he  speedily 
eclipsed  the  fame,  not  only  of  his  teachers,  but  of  all 
his  predecessors.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Papal  Choir — the  greatest  honour  that  could  be 
offered  to  a  mediseval  musician — during  the  Pontifi- 
cate of  Pope  Sixtus  IY.5  whose  reign  lasted  from 
1471  to  1484,  and  for  whom  the  famous  Sistine 
Chapel  was  built,  by  Baccio  Pinelli,  in  1473.  After 
this,  he  accepted  appointments  at  the  Courts  of 
Ercole  di  Ferrara,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  King  Louis 

~  The  Composer's  real  name,  as  recorded  in  his  epitaph  at 
Conde,  was  Josse  Despres — in  Latin,  Jodocus  Pratensis ;  in 
Italian,  Jusquino  del  Prato.  The  diminutive,  Josquin,  or,  more 
correctly,  Jossekin,  by  which  he  is  always  known,  was  probably  a 
pet  name  bestowed  upon  him,  during  the  time  that  he  sang,  as  a 
Choir-Boy,  in  the  Cathedral  of  S.  Quentin. 


A.D.  1500.]     The  Early  Flemish  Schools,  55 

XII.  of  France,  and  tlie  Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  in 
whose  service  lie  died,  on  the  27th  of  August,  1521, 
at  Conde,  in  the  Cathedral  of  which  town — and  not, 
as  was  once  supposed,  in  that  of  S.  Gudule,  at 
Brussels — his  remains  were  deposited. 

Josquin  was  the  first  composer  who  ever  attempted 
to  glorify  learning,  and  ingenuity,  by  the  power  of 
true  beauty ;  hence,  his  works  are  the  earliest  to 
which  it  is  still  possible  to  listen  with  pleasure. 
Seventeen  of  his  Masses  were  printed  in  the  now 
excessively  rare  collections  of  Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci 
(Fossombrone  1514 — )  ;  many  separate  pieces  will 
be  found  in  the  Dodecachordon  of  Glareanus  (Venice 
1529.  Basle  1547) ;  and  a  great  number  have  been 
reprinted  by  Burney,  Hawkins,  Ambros,  and  other 
historians.  His  most  famous  disciples  were,  Pierre 
de  la  Rue  (in  Latin,  Petrus  Platensis),  Nicolas 
Gombert,  Antonius  Brumel,  Loyset  Compere,  and 
Alexander  Agricola. 

The  founder  of  The  Fourth  Flemish  School  was 
Josquin's  disciple,  Nicolas  Gombert;  audits  brightest 
ornaments  were,  Clemens  non  Papa,  Philippus  de 
Monte,  Claude  Gondimel ;  the  great  Madrigal 
writers,  Philipp  Yerdelot,  Giaches  de  Wert,  Huberto 
Waelrant,  and  Jacques  Archadelt ;  Adrian  Willaert, 
the  founder  of  the  Venetian  School;  and  the  last 
great  genius  of  the  Netherlands,  Poland  de  Lattre, 
(generally  known  by  his  Italian  name,  Orlando  di 


5^  The  Early  Roman  Schools,    [a.d.  15 i6. 

Lasso).  These  writers,  feeling  the  impossibility  of 
rivalling  Josquin  on  his  own  ground,  no  longer 
attempted  the  invention  of  ingenious  devices,  but 
strove  simply  for  the  attainment  of  harmonious 
beauty ;  and  their  labours  were  crowned  with  such 
triumphant  success,  that  their  Masses,  Motets,  and, 
especially,  their  Madrigals,  are  among  the  most 
charming  in  existence.  With  this  School,  Flemish 
Art  died  out  in  its  natural  birth-place,  though  it 
flourished  abundantly  in  the  distant  countries  to 
which  its  inventors  transplanted  it. 

Though  the  affiliation  of  The  First  Roman  School 
to  the  Schools  of  the  Netherlands  cannot  be  sup- 
ported by  an  authoritative  register  of  names  and 
dates,  it  is  certain  that  it  owed  its  most  salient 
characteristics  to  the  marked  preference  accorded  to 
Flemish  singers  in  the  Sistine  Choir.  Its  founder 
was  Costanzo  Festa,  who  obtained  a  place  in  the 
Choir,  in  1516.  His  compositions,  and  those  of  his 
disciples,  show  very  distinct  traces  of  the  influence 
of  the  successors  of  Josquin  des  Pres,  though 
accompanied  with  sufficient  individuality  to  prove 
the  existence  of  innate  genius  of  a  very  high  order. 

To  The  SecojsD  Roman  School  we  are  indebted  for 
the  grandest  Ecclesiastical  Music  in  existence  ;  and 
its  founder  was  unquestionably  one  of  the  greatest 
and  most  original  geniuses  the  world  of  Art  has  ever 
produced. 


A.D.  1524.]  Palestrina, 


57 


Giovanni  Pierluigi  Sante  ^ — called,  from  his  birth- 
place, Palestrina — was  born,  if  we  may  trust  the 
authority  of  his  biographer,  Baini,  in  1524.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he  sang  in 
the  Choir  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  studied 
composition  under  Claude  Gcndimel.^  After  this, 
we  hear  no  more  of  him,  until  1551,  when  he  was 
appointed  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  Vatican,  with 
the  duty  of  teaching  the  Choristers  of  the  Cappella 
Giulia.  Three  years  later,  he  dedicated  his  First 
Booh  of  Masses  to  Pope  Julius  III. ;  and,  about  this 
time,  he  married.  In  1555,  he  was  admitted,  by  the 
Pope's  express  command,  into  the  Choir  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  and  necessarily  resigned  his  office  at 

^  In  Latin,  loannes  Petraloysius  Pra3nestinus.  For  the  dis- 
covery of  the  family  surname,  we  are  indebted  to  the  researches  of 
Signor  Cicerchia,  a  pupil  of  Baini,  who  found,  at  Palestrina, 
documents  proving  that  the  Composer  was  the  son  of  a  small 
landed  proprietor,  named  Sante,  and  that  the  maiden  name  of  his 
mother,  Maria,  was  Gismondi.  These  documents  refer  the  birth 
of  the  composer  to  the  year  1514.  If  this  date  be  correct,  we 
must  understand  the  words  of  his  son,  Igino,  ^ Pater  mens  septua- 
ginta  fere  vitce  suve  annos  Dei  laudibus  componendi  consumenSj  to 
intimate  that  he  began  to  compose,  in  earnest,  at  the  age  of  ten 
years — i.e.  in  1524 ;  the  date  usually  given  as  that  of  his  birth. 
Sut,  though  Signor  Cicerchia's  discovery  was  made  some  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  he  has  never  thought  it  worth  while  to  confirm  it 
by  the  publication  of  the  documents. 

*  A  talented  composer  of  the  Fourth  Flemish  School,  who 
afterwards  settled  in  Lyons,  and  was  there  assassinated,  apparently 
by  mistake,  during  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots,  in  1572. 


58  Palestrina,  [a.d.  1564. 

the  Vatican.  But  Pope  Julius  died  almost  imme- 
diately after  making  the  appointment.  His  successor, 
Marcellus  11.,  died,  in  his  turn,  after  a  Pontificate 
of  twenty-three  days'  duration.  And  the  next  Pope, 
Paul  lY.,  cancelled  the  appointment ;  on  the  ground 
that,  by  the  constitution  of  the  '  College  of  Pon- 
tifical Singers,'  Palestrina,  being  both  a  layman,  and 
a  married  man,  was  doubly  disqualified  from  holding 
it.  This  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  young  com- 
poser ;  but,  before  the  close  of  the  year,  he  was 
elected  Maestro  di  Oappella  at  the  Lateran  Basilica, 
where  he  remained  until  1561,  when  he  was  appointed 
Maestro  di  Gappella  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  the 
Church  in  which  he  had  formerly  sung  as  a  Choir- 
Boy.  This  office  hq  retained  until,  in  1571,  the 
death  of  Animuccia,  his  successor  at  the  Vatican, 
enabled  him  to  resume  the  appointment  he  had  so 
unfortunately  resigned. 

The  most  important  event  in  the  life  of  Palestrina 
took  place  during  the  time  that  he  remained  in 
office  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  The  style  of  Music 
most  diligently  cultivated  at  that  period,  was  open 
to  so  many  objections,  that  the  Council  of  Trent 
formally  interdicted  its  continuance.  In  1564,  Pope 
Pius  IV. — the  successor  of  Paul — referred  the  matter 
to  a  Commission  of  eight  Cardinals,  who  had  almost 
decided  upon  recommending  the  disuse  of  all  Church 
Music  whatever,  except  unisonous  and  unaccom- 


A.D.  1565.]  The  '  Missa  Papce  Marcelli'  59 

panied  Plain  Chaunt,  when,  at  the  instance  of  S. 
Carlo  Borromeo,  and.  Cardinal  Yitellozzo  Yitellozzi, 
it  was  determined  that  Palestrina  should  compose  a 
Mass,  with  the  intention  of  proving  whether,  or 
not,  it  was  possible  to  reform  the  then  prevailing 
style  of  composition,  in  such  wise  as  to  render  it 
really  worthy  of  its  high  purpose.  The  success 
of  the  experiment  exceeded  the  brightest  hopes  of 
those  who  had  proposed  it ;  and  Palestrina' s  Missa 
PapcB  Marcelli,  first  sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  on 
the  19th  of  June,  1565,  was  formally  accepted  as  an 
embodiment  of  the  style  in  which  all  future  Church 
Music  should  be  composed.  The  results  of  the  trial, 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  Music  it  produced,  were 
so  important,  that  we  have  thought  it  well  to  devote 
a  separate  chapter  to  their  consideration,  rather  than 
to  interrupt  our  rapid  sketch  of  the  progress  of 
Polyphonic  Schools,  by  the  insertion  of  lengthy 
critical  remarks.  Sufiice  it,  then,  for  the  present, 
to  say,  that  Palestrina' s  devotion  was  rewarded  by 
the  post  of  Composer  to  the  Sistine  Chapel,  created 
expressly  for  him;  and  that  he  retained  this  ap- 
pointment, together  with  his  office  at  the  Vatican, 
until,  on  the  2nd  of  February,  1594,  he  expired,  in 
the  arms  of  his  friend,  S.  Philip  Neri,  who  loved 
him  like  a  brother,  and  not  without  good  cause,  for 
the  composer's  own  private  life  was  little  less  holy 
than  that  of  a  Saint. 


6o  The  Ve7ietian  School,       [a.d.  1527. 

The  greatest  of  Palestrina's  contemporaries  were 
Vittoria,  Giovanni  Maria  and  Bernadino  Nanini, 
Felice  andFranceso  Anerio,  and  the  famous  Madrigal- 
writer,  Luca  Marenzio. 

Contemporary  with  the  Schools  we  have  described 
was  The  Venetian  School,  founded  by  Adrian 
Willaert,  a  Netherlander  of  high  reputation,  who,  in 
1527,  was  appointed  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the 
Cathedral  of  S.  Mark.  Under  the  guidance  of  this 
talented  leader,  the  great  Venetian  Masters  invested 
the  full  harmonies  of  the  Fourth  Flemish  School 
with  a  southern  richness  which  rendered  them  doubly 
beautiful.  Greatest  among  these  were,  Cipriano  di 
Rore,  Zarlino,  Andrea  and  Giovanni  Gabrieli,  and 
Giovanni  della  Croce,  the  last  representative  of  the 
School,  which  died,  with  him,  in  1609. 

Distinct  Polyphonic  Schools  were  also  formed  in 
Florence,  Bologna,  Lombaudy,  and  Naples.  The 
Venetian  School  exercised  a  remarkable  influence 
upon  those  of  Nueemberg  and  Munich — the  former, 
founded  by  Hans  Leo  Hasler,  a  German ;  and  the 
latter,  by  the  famous  Netherlander,  Orlando  di  Lasso. 
The  connection  of  the  French  School  with  its  con- 
temporaries in  the  Netherlands  was  so  intimate,  that 
it  was  not  always  easy  to  separate  the  history  of  the 
two,  though  a  few  French  composers  certainly  suc- 
ceeded in  striking  out  a  new  line  for  themselves. 
The  Spanish  School  learned  the  Art  of  Composition 


AD.  1605.]         The  Spanish  ScJwoL 


61 


from  Rome,  in  return  for  the  beautifully-trained 
voices  with  which,  for  many  years,  it  furnished  the 
Sistine  Chapel.  Its  brightest  ornament  was  Yit- 
toria ;  who,  after  a  successful  career  in  Rome,  entered 
upon  a  still  brighter  one  in  his  own  country,  where 
he  is  known  to  have  been  still  living  in  1605. 

To  the  history  aud  characteristics  of  the  English 
Polyphonic  Schools,  we  propose  to  devote  a  separate 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CONCEENING  THE  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  POLYPHONIC 
schools;  THEIR  DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS; 
THEIR  PROGRESS;  AND  THE  REFORM  EFFECTED  BY 
PALESTRINA. 

The  development  of  the  Polyphonic  Schools,  like 
that  of  the  unisonous  systems  by  which  they  were 
preceded,  manifested  itself  in  two  opposite  direc- 
tions— the  Ecclesiastical,  and  the  Secular  :  the 
former  being  chiefly  represented  by  the  Mass,  and 
its  natural  concomitant,  the  Motet ;  the  latter,  by 
the  Madrigal. 

When  the  simple  harmonies  of  the  Faux-bourdon 
were  abandoned,  in  favour  of  more  complicated  forms 
of  composition,  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  Schools 
did  not  at  once  invent  new  subjects  for  their  Masses, 
but  based  them  upon  short  fragments  of  Plain 
Chaunt,  such  as  the  first  line  of  a  well-known  Hymn, 
or  the  opening  phrase  of  an  Antiphon,  or  even  the 
sounds  of  the  Hexachord.  From  the  chosen  Hymn, 
or  Antiphon,  the  Mass  derived  its  name :  thus,  we 


A.D.  1500.]      The  Music  of  the  Mass, 


63 


constantly  meet  with  examples  of  tlie  Missa  *  Iste 
Confessor,*  the  Missa  '  Sterna  Ghristi  munera,^  the 
Missa  '  Alma  Redemptoris,*  and  others  of  like  charac- 
ter. A  Mass  founded  on  the  sounds  of  the  Hexa- 
chord  was  called,  Missa  super  voces  musicales,  or, 
Missa  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La.  In  the  rare  cases  in 
which  an  original  theme  was  invented,  the  work  was 
called  Missa  sine  nomine  ;  or,  if  it  happened  to  be  a 
very  short  one,  Missa  hrevis.  In  the  earlier  Schools, 
we  also  meet  with  innumerable  examples  of  Masses, 
based  upon  secular  themes,  such  as  the  first  line  of 
a  popular  Romance.  Hence,  it  is  not  at  all  un- 
common to  meet  with  Masses,  entitled,  Missa  '  Se  la 
face  ay  pale,'*  Missa  '  Tant  je  me  deduis,'  or,  more 
frequently  still,  Missa  '  L'homme  arme  ' — the  last- 
named  theme  being  one  upon  which  scarcely  any 
mediaeval  composer  of  any  reputation  neglected  to 
exercise  his  ingenuity. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the  selec- 
tion of  these  secular  themes  implied  any  thought  of 
irreverence,  on  the  part  of  those  who  used  them. 
The  old  Flemish  painters,  when  they  depicted  the 
Xativity,  or  the  Marriage  at  Cana,  surrounded  Our 
Lady  with  all  the  familiar  appliances  of  the  hostelries 
they  themselves  were  accustomed  to  visit,  in  every 
village  in  the  Netherlands  ;  and  no  one  suspects 
them  of  having  done  so  from  motives  of  deliberate 
profanity.     They  simply  painted  what  they  saw, 


64 


The  Music  of  the  Mass,     [a.d.  1500. 


every  day  of  their  lives.  And,  in  like  manner,  the 
composers  treated,  with  their  most  elaborate  contra- 
puntal devices,  the  Melodies  they  most  frequently 
heard.  But,  in  process  of  time,  the  practice  led  to 
very  disgraceful  abuses. 

Again,  they  contracted  the  habit  of  intermingling, 
with  the  authorised  text  of  the  Mass,  passages  of 
Scripture,  and  Hymns,  and  Antiphons,  which  had 
no  positive  connection  with  it.  And  here,  again, 
the  primary  intention  was  not  only  innocent,  but 
even  commendable.  Palestrina,  for  instance — a 
deeply  religious  man — once  wrote  a  Mass,  in  which 
one  voice  constantly  repeated  the  words  of  the 
Antiphon,  Ecce  Sacerdos  magmcs,  appointed  for  the 
Festivals  of  certain  Saints,  while  the  others  sang  the 
authorised  text :  evidently  with  the  intention  of 
continually  reminding  the  hearer  of  the  object  of 
the  Festival  at  the  celebration  of  which  he  was 
assisting.  But  this  custom  also  led  to  very  serious 
abuses. 

The  spirit  of  infatuation  which  led  the  disciples  of 
Okenheim,  and  other  like  masters,  to  prefer  iogenious 
devices  to  real  beauty,  tended  to  envelope  the  words 
in  a  network  of  elaborate  imitations  which  entirely 
obscured  their  sense.  Even  Josquin  himself  was  not 
free  from  this  error,  which  many  of  his  imitators 
cultivated  as  a  virtue.  The  admixture  of  irrelevant 
words  immeasurably  increased  the  evil ;  and,  in  later 


A.D.  1564.]      The  Papal  Commission. 


65 


times,  tempted  really  profane  vocalists  to  sing,  witli 
wanton  indecency,  the  actual  words  of  the  secular 
themes  upon  which  certain  Masses  were  based.  It 
was  against  these  abuses  that  the  Council  of  Trent 
protested ;  and  this  was  the  style  of  Music  which  it 
most  emphatically  condemned. 

When  the  Decreta  of  the  Council  were  submitted 
to  Pope  Pius  lY.,  he  appointed  a  Commission,  to 
consider  the  whole  matter,  including  the  revision  of 
the  Missal,  and  Breviary,  into  both  of  which  mis- 
takes had  crept,  through  the  inaccuracy  of  many 
generations  of  transcribers,  and  from  other  causes. 
Pope  Pius,  though  an  earnest  reformer,  was  not, 
like  his  predecessor.  Pope  Paul  lY.,  a  violent  one; 
and  his  earnestness  and  moderation  were  well  shown 
in  the  choice  of  the  eight  Cardinals  to  whom  he 
committed  the  diflBcult  duty  of  preparing  new  edi- 
tions of  the  great  Office-books  of  the  Church,  and 
providing  for  the  reverent  performance  of  Divine 
Service.  The  Commissioners  were — S.  Carlo  Bor- 
romeo,  a  Prelate  equally  remarkable  for  his  un- 
ostentatious piety,  and  his  refined  and  cultivated 
taste;  Cardinal  Yitellozzo  Yitellozzi,  a  munificent 
patron  of  Art,  and  a  highly  accomplished  musician ; 
Card.  Michele  Ghislieri,  afterwards  Pope  S.  Pius  Y. ; 
Card.  Giovanni  Moroni;  Card.  Gian  Michele 
Saraceni ;  Card.  Giambattista  Cicala ;  Card.  Cle- 
mente  Dolera  ;  and  Card.  Lodovico  Simonetta :  all 


66 


The  Papal  Commission,      [a.d.  1564. 


men  well  qualified  for  the  execution  of  their  delicate 
task,  and  everywhere  respected  for  their  learning, 
and  impartiality.  Their  determination  to  do  that 
which  was  right,  with  regard  to  the  particular  point 
now  under  consideration,  was  shown  by  the  signifi- 
cant fact,  that,  before  taking  any  decided  step,  they 
subjected  eight  members  of  the  Pontifical  Choir  to  a 
rigorous  examination,  and  carefully  recorded  their 
opinions.-^  Notwithstanding  the  flagrant  abuses  with 
which  so  much  of  the  Church  Music  then  in  use  was 
proved,  by  the  singers  themselves,  to  have  been  de- 
formed,  S.  Charles,  believing  a  purer  style  to  be  not 
only  desirable,  but  perfectly  within  the  reach  of 
possibility,  opposed  the  suggestion  that  Plain  Chaunt 
alone  should  be  sung,  in  future  Services  ;  and,  sup- 
ported by  Cardinal  Yitellozzo  Yitellozzi,  succeeded 
in  inducing  his  brother  Commissioners  to  delay  their 
decision,  until  Palestrina  had  been  allowed  to  show 
how  far  Art  could  be  made  to  serve  as  the  handmaid 
of  Religion.  At  his  desire,  Palestrina  composed, 
not  one  single  Mass,  as  has  generally  been  said,  but 
three  Masses,  each  for  six  voices,  but  each  in  a 
different  style,  though  all  designed  for  the  purpose 
of  illustrating,  instead  of  obscuring,  the  meaning  of 
the  sacred  text,  and  all  pervaded  by  a  solemn  beauty 

^  The  names  of  the  Papal  Singers  consulted  on  this  occasion 
were,  F.  de'Lazisi,  F.  Merlo,  F.  Soto,  F.  de  Torres,  F.  Calasanz, 
C.  Hameyden,  V.  Vicomerato,  and  G.  L.  Yescovi. 


A.D.  1 565.]    The  *  Missa  PapcB  Marcelli'  67 

till  then  unknown  in  Music — a  rich  harmonious 
charm  which  appealed,  at  once,  to  the  inmost  heart 
of  the  worshippers,  and  could  scarcely  fail  to  arouse 
devotional  feelings  in  the  soul  of  the  coldest  listener. 
The  great  Composer  spared  no  pains  to  attain  the 
desired  result :  but  it  was  an  anxious  time,  for  all 
concerned  ;  for,  upon  the  approval,  or  rejection,  of 
his  efforts,  the  future  existence,  or  summary  ex- 
tinction, of  Ecclesiastical  Music  was  openly  declared 
to  depend. 

On  Saturday,  April  28,  1565,  the  three  Masses 
were  privately  sung,  by  the  entire  body  of  Pontifical 
Singers,  at  the  palace  of  Card.  Yitellozzo  Vitellozzi, 
in  presence  of  the  eight  Commissioners,  whose  ver- 
dict upon  them  was  unanimous.  The  first  Mass,  in 
Modes  III.  and  IV. — the  Phrygian,  and  Plypo- 
phrygian — and  the  second,  in  Mode  VII. — the 
Mixolydian  —  were  enthusiastically  admired,  as 
works  of  Art :  but  the  third,  in  Mode  XIV. — the 
Hypoionian — exceeded,  in  devotional  expression,  all 
that  had  ever  been  conceived  possible,  in  the  purest 
style  of  Vocal  Music  in  existence.  This  wondrous 
inspiration,  now  known  as  the  Missa  Papce  MarcelU, 
was,  therefore,  unanimously  accepted,  by  the  Car- 
dinals, as  the  prototype,  upon  the  lines  of  which  all 
future  Music  composed  for  the  service  of  the  Church 
should  be  modelled.  Giovanni  Parvi,  copyist  to  the 
Pontifical  Choir,  was  commanded  to  transcribe  it 

F  2 


68 


The  '  Missa  PapcB  Marcelli'  [a.d.  1565. 


in  notes  of  extraordinary  size,  and  beauty.^  And, 
on  the  lOtli  of  June,  1565 — the  Tuesday  preceding 
the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi — it  was  solemnly  sung, 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Pius 
IV.,  and  the  Ambassadors  of  the  Swiss  Catholic 
Cantons,  S.  Charles  himself  acting  as  Celebrant  of 
the  Mass.  The  performance  of  the  Music  was  irre- 
proachable ;  and,  so  deeply  was  the  Holy  Father 
impressed  by  its  beauty,  that,  on  leaving  the  Chapel, 
he  said,  "  This  must  surely  have  been  the  Harmony 
of  the  '  New  Song '  which  the  Apostle,  S.  John, 
heard  sung  in  the  Heavenly  Jerusalem,  and  of  which 
this  other  John  has  given  us  a  foretaste,  in  the 
Jerusalem  on  earth.^ 

^  This  beautiful  copy  is  still  preserved  among  the  Archives  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  it  is  kno^ra  as  W-  22. 

'  Of  the  two  first  Masses,  one  still  remains  in  MS.,  and  the 
other  has  never  been  reprinted,  since  the  year  1595  ;  but  both 
will  probably  be  included,  before  very  long,  in  the  complete  collec- 
tion of  Palestrina's  works  now  in  course  of  publication,  at  Leipzig, 
by  Messrs.  Breitkopf  and  Hartel.  The  Missa  FapcE  Marcelli — so 
named,  in  honour  of  Pope  Paul's  short-lived  predecessor — was 
published,  by  Palestrina  himself,  in  his  '  Second  Book  of  Masses,' 
printed  at  Eome,  in  1567,  and  dedicated  to  King  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  Notwithstanding  its  extraordinary  celebrity,  it  has  been 
but  very  rarely  heard,  in  England.  On  the  16th  of  February, 
1882,  it  was  performed,  for  the  first  time,  in  a  complete  form,  by 
the  Bach  Choir,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Otto  Goldschmidt ; 
and,  on  the  Feast  of  S.  Charles,  JN""''-  4,  1884,  it  was  sung,  at  High 
Mass,  at  the  Church  of  S.  Mary  of  the  Angels,  Bayswater,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Father  Taunton.    An  exaggerated  idea  of 


A .  D .  1565.]    The  '  M  issa  PapcB  Mar  eel  I i. 


69 


It  is  difficult  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  beauty  of 
this  most  perfect  Music,  without  hearing  it  actually 
sung,  as  Palestrina  himself  intended  it  to  be  sung, 
by  a  tolerably  numerous  Choir  of  unaccompanied 
voices.  The  amount  of  learning  displayed  in  its 
construction  is  almost  incredible;  yet,  the  effect 
produced  upon  the  hearer  is  that  of  extreme  sim- 
plicity. And  the  reason  of  this  is  obvious. 
Ingenuity  and  learning  are  everywhere  made  sub- 
servient to  beauty  of  expression ;  and  beauty  of 
expression,  to  devotional  feeling. 

And  herein  it  is,  that  the  Music  of  Palestrina 
differs,  not  merely  in  technical  construction,  but,  in 
its  inmost  essence,  from  that  produced  by  the  very 
greatest  of  his  predecessors.  Even  Josquin  himself 
aimed  at  no  higher  excellence  than  that  of  sym- 
metrical form.  Of  expression,  and  feeling,  properly 
so  called,  his  compositions  are  as  destitute  as  those 
of  Okenheim,  or  Pierre  de  la  Rue.  True,  each 
earnest  labourer,  from  the  Organiser  of  the  11th 
century,  to  the  Composer  of  the  earlier  half  of  the 
16th,  contributed  his  share — not  always  an  unim- 
portant one — towards  the  advancement  of  the  Art  he 

its  difficulty  has  prevented  many  thoroughly  competent  Choirs  from 
attempting  its  interpretation.  It  is  difficult,  of  course,  but  not 
more  so  than  many  works  of  greatly  inferior  merit;  and  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  effect  produced  on  the  occasions  to  which 
we  have  alluded  will  lead  to  its  more  frequent  presentation,  in 
time  to  come. 


70  The  *  School  of  Palestrina'   [a.d.  1565. 

loved.  The  earlier  Contrapuntists,  with  Dufay  at 
their  head,  collected  the  materials  with  which  their 
successors  worked.  They  gathered  together — we 
have  already  used  the  simile,  elsewhere,  but,  unable 
to  find  another,  equally  appropriate,  must  risk  its 
repetition  here — they  gathered  together  the  dry 
bones  of  Counterpoint,  but  made  no  attempt  to 
arrange  them  in  symmetrical  order.  With  these 
dry  bones,  Okenheim  constructed  a  perfectly-pro- 
portioned skeleton ;  complete,  in  all  its  parts,  and 
articulated  with  such  marvellous  skill,  that  every 
joint  performed  its  appointed  office  in  subservience 
to  the  general  design.  To  Josquin  was  committed 
the  duty  of  clothing  this  skeleton  with  flesh.  His 
cunning  hand  shaped  every  graceful  limb,  moulding 
its  delicate  contour  into  curves  of  subtlest  beauty,  so 
harmoniously  blended  together  that  it  seemed  as  if 
no  human  power  could  add  to  their  ineffable  charm. 
But  the  form  was  as  cold,  and  lifeless,  as  that  of  a 
marble  statue.  It  needed  the  Heaven-born  genius 
of  Palestrina  to  breathe  into  it  the  breath  of  life. 
He  it  was  who  first  endowed  it  with  a  voice, 
capable  of  singing  God's  praises  in  the  Sanctuary, 
in  accents  not  wholly  unworthy  of  their  high 
intent.  Thenceforward,  Music  was  no  longer  to 
be  a  dead  letter — an  exalted  branch  of  arithmetic — 
but,  a  living  reality,  an  Art  speaking  more  directly 
to  the  great  heart  of  humanity  than  Sculpture,  or 


A.D.  1 565.]   The  '  School  0/ Palestrina* 


71 


Painting,  or  even  Poetry  itself,  its  best  beloved 
sister. 

And  Palestrina's  influence  was  by  no  means 
restricted  to  Churcli  Music.  It  made  itself  felt,  with 
irresistible  power,  iu  the  minutest  ramifications  of 
the  secular  branch  of  Art.  At  the  period  of  which 
we  are  treating,  the  Madrigal  occupied,  in  Secular 
Music,  a  position  analogous  to  that  of  the  Mass,  and 
the  Motet,  in  the  Music  of  the  Church.  In  very 
early  times,  it  was  most  frequently  based  upon  the 
Melody  of  some  popular  Chanson,  or  chivalrous 
Romance ;  just  as  the  Mass  was  founded  upon  a 
fragment  of  Plain  Chaunt.  But,  in  the  days  of  its 
splendour,  it  was  almost  invariably  constructed 
upon  original  Subjects,  treated  with  more  or  less 
ingenious  contrivance,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
words,  and  always,  like  the  Mass,  and  the  Motet, 
in  one  or  other  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes.*  This 
last  circumstance  tended  to  assimilate  its  style  to 
that  of  some  of  the  lighter  forms  of  Sacred  Music 

*  In  order  to  ascertain  the  ^lode  in  which  a  Mass,  or  Madrigal, 
is  ^vritten,  examine  the  last  note  in  the  Bass.  This  will  be  the 
Final  of  the  Mode.  Then,  turn  to  the  Tenor.  Should  the  range 
of  this  lie  between — or,  nearly  between — the  Final,  and  its  Octave, 
the  Mode  will  be  Authentic:  should  it  lie  between  the  Fifth 
above  the  Final,  and  the  Fourth  below  it,  it  will  be  Plagal. 
But,  should  there  be  a  Bjj  at  the  Signature,  this  will  show  that 
the  Mode  has  been  transposed ;  and  the  true  Final  must  then  be 
sought  for  a  Fourth  below  the  last  Bass  note. 


7  2  The  '  School  of  Palestrma . '   [a .  d  .  1 5  6  5 . 

wliicli  Palestrina  displaced  :  but  he  was  by  no  means 
averse  from  this  Hghter  style,  in  his  secular  com- 
positions ;  and  his  Madrigals  are  the  most  charming 
and  graceful  in  existence. 

So  directly  did  the  new  style,  which  owed  its 
existence  to  the  genius  of  Palestrina,  appeal  to  the 
hearts  of  all  who  heard  it,  that  it  was  eagerly  adopted 
by  all  the  best  composers  of  the  day,  not  only  in 
the  Italian  Schools,  but,  in  those  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  and  Spain.  And,  so  great  was  the 
success  with  which  it  was  practised,  that  the  period 
between  the  production  of  the  Missa  Papce  Mar- 
celli,  and  the  year  of  its  author's  death,  [1565 — 
1594],  has  been  justly  called  'The  Golden  Age  of 
Ecclesiastical  Music'  After  the  close  of  the  16th 
century,  the  rapid  progress  made  in  Instrumental 
Music  effected  a  new  and  radical  change ;  and,  before 
another  fifty  years  had  lapsed.  Polyphonic  Music 
had  already  become  a  thing  of  the  past.  Of  this 
change  we  shall  treat,  at  some  length,  in  its  proper 
place.  For  the  present,  it  is  only  necessary  to  add, 
that,  although  the  facts  we  have  narrated  can  be 
substantiated  by  written  evidence  preserved  among 
the  Archives  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  they  have  been 
misrepresented,  contradicted,  and  denied,  over  and 
over  again.  Pellegrini,  probably  misled  by  the  title 
of  the  famous  Mass,  tells  us  that  it  was  not  composed 
by  Palestrina,  in  the  16th  century,  but,  by  Pope  S. 


A.D.  1565.]     The  '  School  of  Palestrina.^  73 

Marcellus  I.,  who  suffered  Martyrdom,  at  Rome,  in 
the  year  810,  while  the  Christians  were  still  under 
bitter  persecution,  and  compelled  to  worship  secretly, 
in  the  Catacombs  !  And  this  absurd  statement,  which 
represents  the  Mass  to  have  been  written  some  six 
or  seven  centuries  before  the  invention  of  Discant, 
has  been  gravely  quoted,  as  truth,  by  many  later 
historians.  Neither  Hawkins,  nor  Burney,  enter 
fully  into  the  details  of  the  narrative  :  but  Baini,  in 
his  invaluable  Memorie  critico-istoriche  on  the  life 
and  writings  of  Palestrina,  published  in  1828,  gives 
the  fullest  and  most  trustworthy  account  of  the 
circumstances  that  has  ever  been  printed,  with  con- 
stant reference  to  original  authorities.  Baini  has 
been  hotly  censured,  by  later  critics,  for  special 
pleading,  in  favour  of  his  hero.  The  great  German 
historian,  Ambros — whose  Geschichte  der  Musih  is, 
undoubtedly,  the  most  valuable  contribution  to  the 
history  of  Mediaeval  Art  that  we  are  fortunate  enough 
to  possess — Ambros,  writing  in  1878,  denies,  in 
spite  of  full  documentary  evidence  to  the  contrary, 
that  abuses,  such  as  those  against  which  the  Council 
of  Trent  protested,  ever  had  any  existence  at  all, 
except  in  the  minds  of  erring  historians ;  that  any 
reform  in  the  then  prevailing  style  of  the  Music  of 
the  Mass  was  needed ;  and,  that  any  such  reform 
ever  took  place.  But,  the  evidence  afforded  by  the 
records  is  indisputable.    Masses,  with  mixed  words, 


74  T^he  '  School  oj  Palestrina'  [a.d.  1565. 

exist,  both  in  MS.,  and  in  print,  in  far  greater 
number  than  is  necessary  to  prove  the  case ;  and 
the  proceedings  of  the  Commission  have  reached  us 
in  a  form  sufficiently  circumstantial  to  leave  no 
doubt  whatever  on  any  point  of  real  importance. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 


ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  POLYPHONIC    MUSIC  IN 
ENGLAND. 

The  development  of  the  Art  of  Composition,  in  our 
own  country,  can  be  traced  back,  as  we  have  already 
shown,  on  the  indisputable  authority  of  the  Reading 
MS.,  to  a  very  remote  period  indeed.^  That  the 
First  English  School  was  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
under  the  auspices  of  its  reputed  founder,  John  of 
Fornsete,  at  least  as  early  as  the  year  1226  is  cer- 
tain. But  it  is  impossible,  either  that  that  can 
have  been  the  period  of  its  foundation,  or,  that  John 
of  Fornsete  can  have  been  its  true  father,  for.  Music 
of  so  advanced  a  character  as  the  Motet,  Ave  glorlosa 
Mater,  and  the  Rota,  Sumer  is  icumen  in,  can  only 
have  been  the  result  of  long  practice  and  experience, 
and  must  necessarily  have  been  preceded  by  a  long 
series  of  progressive  attempts,  of  which  no  trace 
has,  as  yet,  been  brought  to  hght.  The  Motet  seems 

'  Vide  page  45. 


76  The  Fii'st  English  School,    [a.d.  1226. 

to  have  attained  some  celebrity  on  the  Continent, 
as  well  as  in  England ;  for  a  slightly  different  ver- 
sion of  it  was  discovered,  byMons.  de  Coussemaker, 
in  a  very  remarkable  volume  now  known  as  the  Mont- 
pelier  MS.  The  differences  between  the  two  versions 
are  not  extensive ;  and,  as  the  date  usually  assigned 
to  the  Montpelier  MS.  is  somewhat  later  than  that 
of  our  own,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  regard  this 
portion  of  it  as  a  rather  free  transcript  of  the  Eead- 
ing  copy.  But,  no  early  transcript  of  the  Rota  is 
known  to  be  in  existence ;  and  no  similar  composi- 
tion of  equal  antiquity,  has  ever  been  discovered, 
either  in  England,  or  on  the  Continent.  Within  the 
last  few  years,  however,  the  indefatigable  research  of 
Mr.  William  Chappell  has  brought  to  light  four  more 
productions  of  the  same  early  School — including 
a  beautiful  English  Hymn,  Quen  of  euene  for  hlisse 
— scored  for  two  voices  ;  and  one — Salve  virgo  vir- 
ginum — for  three  voices  ;  all  contained  in  a  MS. 
quite  certainly  as  old  as  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.  This  venerable  document — which,  in  allu- 
sion to  a  copy  it  contains  of  the  Angelus  ad  Vir- 
ginem,  mentioned  in  '  Ye  Millere's  Tale,'  we  have 
elsewhere  designated  as  the  Chaucer  MS. — was 
formerly  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Society,  but 
now  forms  part  of  the  Arundel  Collection,  in  the 
British  Museum.^  The  evidence  it  affords  is  in- 
*  Arundel,  MSS.  248. 


A.D.  1450.]    The  Second  English  School,  77 

valuable ;  for,  taken  in  connection  with  the  Reading 
MS.,  which  alone  exceeds  it  in  interest,  it  establishes 
the  antiquity  of  the  First  English  School  beyond 
all  possibility  of  controversy.  That  we  possess  no 
farther  records  of  the  School,  capable  of  chi^ono- 
logical  arrangement,  is  less  matter  for  wonder  than 
the  almost  miraculous  preservation  of  these  two. 
For,  our  literary  and  artistic  relics  of  the  Middle  Ages 
have  suffered  more,  from  the  spirit  of  iconoclastic 
devastation,  than  those  of  almost  any  other  country. 
The  fervid  zeal  which  accompanied  the  change  of  Reli- 
gion, and  consequent  suppression  of  the  Monasteries, 
during  the  reign  of  King  Henry  YIIL,  led  to  the 
wanton  destruction  of  treasures,  the  loss  of  which 
can  never  be  sufficiently  deplored.  And  as,  in  the 
days  of  Moses,  the  locusts  devoured  '  all  the  fruit  of 
the  trees  which  the  hail  had  left,'  so,  during  the 
course  of  the  great  Rebellion,  the  Roundheads  made 
it  their  business  to  destroy  the  precious  records 
which  the  Reformers  had  spared.  In  face  of  these 
well-known  facts,  most  of  us  will  find  it  more  dif- 
ficult to  believe  that  so  promising  a  School  died 
prematurely  out,  than  that  its  archives  have  perished. 
But,  be  the  cause  what  it  may,  we  hear  no  more  of 
the  Art  of  Composition,  in  England,  for  two  full 
centuries  after  the  death  of  its  earliest  known  re- 
presentative, the  venerable  John  of  Fornsete. 

The  founder  of  The  Second  English  School  was 


7^  The  Third  English  ScIwoL  [a.d.  1480. 

John  of  Dunstable,  a  composer  honourably  men- 
tioned by  Frachinus  Gafurius,  Johannes  de  Tinctoris, 
and  other  early  writers,  some  of  whom  have  erro- 
neously described  him  as  the  inventor  of  Counter- 
point, while  others  have  confounded  his  identity  with 
that  of  S.  Dunstan,  though  we  have  certain  proof 
that  he  was  buried,  in  the  Church  of  S.  Stephen 
Walbrook,  London,  in  the  year  1453.  Two  frag- 
ments only  of  his  compositions  are  known  to  have 
survived  the  double  spoliation  of  our  English  libra- 
ries ;  but  some  important  works  are  preserved  at 
the  Vatican,  and  four  have  lately  been  found  in  a 
very  valuable  MS.  volume,  formerly  known  as  the 
'  Piacenza  Codex,'  but  now  the  property  of  the  Liceo 
Filarmonico  at  Bologna,  which  also  contain  compo- 
sitions by  Johannes  Bennet,  Gervasius  de  Anglia, 
Zacarius  Anglicanus,  and  Lionel  Power  (Ital.  Leonel 
Polbero)  ;  all  Masters  of  the  same  School,  whose  very 
names  have  been  blotted  out  from  the  records  of 
their  native  country. 

Of  The  Thted  English  School  all  traces  have 
perished,  with  the  exception  of  the  well-ascertained 
fact,  that  its  leaders,  John  Hamboys,  Mus.  Doc, 
Thomas  Saintwix,  Mus.  Doc,  and  Henry  Habeng- 
ton,  Mus.  Bac,  who  all  flourished  nearly  at  the 
same  period,  were  the  first  composers  who  took 
Academical  Degrees  in  Music. 

Eobert  Fayrfax,  Mus.  Doc,  who  took  his  Degree 


A.D.  15 1 1.]  Fourth  and  Fifth  English  Schools,  79 

in  1511,  was  the  founder  of  The  Fourth  English 
School,  and  enriched  it  with  works  of  great  merit, 
many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  '  Fayrfax  MS.,' 
belonging  to  the  Music-School,  at  Oxford,  which 
also  contains  compositions  by  Syr  John  Pbelyppes, 
William  of  Newark,  Gilbert  Banester,  Roland  Davy, 
and  other  Masters  of  the  period,  all  written  in  the 
early  Flemish  style,  and,  clearly,  under  the  influence 
of  Flemish  models. 

Very  much  more  advanced  than  these  are  the 
works  produced  by  The  Fifth  English  School, 
which  attained  its  best  period  during  the  earlier 
half  of  the  16th  century,  and  produced  innumerable 
works  which  may  be  fearlessly  compared  with  the 
best  productions  of  the  contemporaneous  Schools  of 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands.  Its  leader  was  John 
Redford,  Organist  of  Old  S.  Paul's  ;  and  among  its 
brightest  ornaments  were  Richard  Edwardes,  John 
Shepherde,  Robert  Johnson,  John  Taverner,  George 
Etheridge,  Robert  Parsons,  John  Thorne,  John  Mar- 
beck,  Mark  Smeaton — executed  inl 53 6 — Thomas  Abel 
— who  met  with  a  similar  fate,  in  1540 — and  King 
Henry  YIII.  himself.  As  all  these  men  were  living, 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  their  works  escaped 
the  consequences  of  the  first  spoliation  of  the  Mon- 
astic and  Cathedral  Libraries ;  but  a  vast  number  of 
them  were  certainly  destroyed  by  the  Puritans. 
Still,   an  immense  collection  remains  to  us ;  and 


8o  The  Sixth  English  School,    [a.d.  i  590. 

among  its  treasures  are  many  masterpieces  the  beauty 
of  which  has  never  been  exceeded.  Such  works  as 
Bedford's  Anthem,  Rejoice  in  the  Lord  alway,  and 
Edwardes's  lovehest  of  Madrigals,  In  going  to  my 
naked  hedde,  must  live  for  ever ;  and  the  Libraries 
of  Christchurch,  and  the  Music- School,  at  Oxford, 
and  other  like  collections,  contain  multitudes  of 
such  works,  which,  though  they  have  escaped  the 
violence  of  the  iconoclasts,  have  been  suffered,  to 
this  day,  to  remain  in  MS.,  unknown,  and  uncared 
for,  by  a  nation  which  complains — with  perfect 
truth — that  its  best  Masters  are  utterly  ignored  by 
Continental  critics. 

The  Sixth  English  School,  contemporary  with 
the  '  Golden  Age '  of  Eoman  Art,  was  founded  by 
Dr.  Christopher  Tye,  and  graced  by  the  talent  of 
Robert  Why  te,  Thomas  Tallis,  William  Byrd,  Richard 
Farrant,  John  Bull,  Orlando  Gibbons,  and  the 
famous  Madrigal- writers,  Thomas  Morley,  John 
Douland,  Thomas  Weelks,  John  Wilbye,  John 
Benet,  John  Ward,  Michael  Este,  John  Hilton, 
Thomas  Forde,  William  Cobbold,  Thomas  Bateson, 
George  Kirbye,  and  many  more,  whose  works  are 
still  deservedly  popular,  and  constantly  sung,  at  the 
meetings  of  the  Madrigal  Society,  and  on  other 
similar  occasions.  Tye's  compositions  are  massive, 
and  full  of  sober  dignity.  Tallis,  best  known  by 
his  beautiful  Responses,  and  Litany,  was  one  of 


A.D.  I59S.] 


Tallis  and  Byrd, 


81 


the  most  learned,  as  well  as  the  most  graceful 
composers  of  the  age.    His  Motet,  in  alium 

non  hahui,  for  forty  voices,  disposed  in  eight  five- 
part  Choirs,  is  a  stupendous  work,  constructed  with 
marvellous  ingenuity  and  skill;  and  his  Cantiones 
Sacrce,  composed  to  Latin  words,  his  Anthems,  and 
his  Hymns,  are  as  remarkable  for  their  beauty  of 
expression,  as  for  their  technical  perfection.  Wil- 
liam Byrd,  known  to  most  amateurs  by  his  wonder- 
ful Canon,  Kon  nobis  Domine — a  musical  enigma, 
capable  of  six  distinct  solutions  besides  the  one 
commonly  sung — was  also  one  of  the  most  ingenious 
Contrapuntists  of  the  age ;  but  his  compositions  are 
less  remarkable  for  the  grace,  though  not  for  the 
dignity  of  their  style,  than  those  of  his  master,  Tal- 
lis. Among  his  Cantiones  Sacrce,  printed  in  1598, 
are  two  Latin  Motets — Bomine,  ne  irascaris,  and 
Civitas  Sancti  tui — which,  adapted  to  the  words,  0 
Lord,  turn  Thy  wrath,  and  Boiv  Thine  Ear,  are  still 
frequently  sung  in  English  Cathedrals.  Farrant, 
on  the  contrary,  cultivated  the  charms  of  expres- 
sion with  never- failing  success  ;  and  it  is  deeply  to 
be  regretted  that  but  very  few  of  his  compositions 
have  been  preserved  to  us.  Orlando  Gibbons,  the 
last  great  luminary  of  the  period,  yielded  to  none  of 
his  predecessors,  either  in  dignity  or  grace.  He 
maintained  the  traditions  of  the  16th  century  in- 
tact, until  his  death  in  1625  ;  and  has  left  us  much  of 

G 


82 


The  English  Madrigalists.  [a.d.  1600. 


tlie  jfinest  Cathedral  Music,  and  many  of  the  most 
charming  Madrigals,  we  possess. 

The  cessation  of  amicable  relations  with  Eome, 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  YIII.,  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, deprived  our  English  composers  of  many 
weighty  advantages  ;  but  tended,  at  the  same  time, 
to  encourage  the  formation  of  a  distinctive  style, 
plainly  discernible,  even  in  the  works  of  our  great 
Church  Composers,  but  still  more  clearly  so,  in 
those  of  the  Madrigalists,  whose  productions  exhibit 
characteristics  which  distinguish  them,  with  equal 
certainty,  from  those  of  the  Flemish,  the  French, 
and  the  Italian  Schools.  Though  written  in  the 
strictest  Counterpoint,  our  best  Madrigals  some- 
times contain  progressions  which  would  have  been 
thought  extremely  hazardous,  by  a  Roman  Com- 
poser. Moreover,  we  were  in  advance  of  most 
other  countries,  in  expedients  pertaining  to  con- 
venience of  Notation,  and  other  like  matters.  For 
instance,  it  was  an  English  publisher  who  first  in- 
troduced the  now  familiar  plan  of  uniting  two, 
four,  or  more  quavers,  or  semi- quavers,  into  a  single 
group,  by  blending  their  hooks  into  a  continuous 
figure ;  and  one  of  the  earliest  known  examples  of 
the  use  of  a  tied  note  in  Polyphonic  Music  is  to  be 
found  in  Wilbye's  Madrigal,  Sweet  honey -suching 
bees,  printed  in  1609.  And  these,  and  other  like 
innovations,  must  necessarily  have  been  intentional. 


A.D.  1600.]    The  English  Madi'igalists.  83 

For,  though  English  Musicians  were  deprived,  by 
the  change  of  Religion,  of  all  personal  intercourse 
with  those  of  Rome,  they  must  have  been  famihar 
with  some,  at  least,  of  the  best  Roman  compositions  ; 
since  it  is  well  known  that  a  wealthy  merchant,  named 
Mcolas  Yonge,  having  procured  a  fine  collection  of 
foreign  Madrigals,  through  his  Italian  correspon- 
dents, published  them,  with  English  words,  under 
the  title  of  Musica  Transalpina,  in  1588,  and  even 
supplemented  the  collection  with  a  second  volume, 
in  1597.  If,  therefore,  our  English  Madrigalists 
wrote  in  a  distinctive  style  of  their  own,  it  was 
not  because  they  were  wholly  ignorant  of  what  was 
done  in  Rome,  and  Venice,  but,  because  they  were 
gifted  with  the  genius  needful  for  the  formation  of 
a  true  national  School. 

We  have  dwelt,  at  some  length,  upon  these  details, 
because  we  cannot  think  it  just  that  the  very 
existence  of  our  early  Schools  should  be  systema- 
tically ignored  by  Continental  critics,  in  the  face  of 
merits  which  are  undeniable,  and  clearly  proved 
by  the  records  which  have  been  spared  to  us,  as 
well  as  ,by  the  testimony  of  mediaeval  authors  whose 
authority  is  admitted,  in  France,  in  Belgium,  and 
in  Germany,  no  less  freely  than  in  England. 


G  2 


CHAPTEH  IX. 


MEDIJEVAL  HYMNOT>Y. 

The  Psalmody — ^properly  so-called — of  tlie  Middle 
Ages,  was  founded  upon  a  very  simple  principle, 
which,  if  the  silence  of  history  may  be  accepted,  in 
proof  of  the  fact,  has  undergone  no  radical  change 
since  the  days  of  the  Early  Christians.  From  time 
immemorial,  the  Psalms  have  been  sung  to  the  un- 
pretending Melodies  which  constituted  the  earliest 
known  form  of  Plain  Chaunt.  Since  the  time  of 
S.  Gregory,  eight  of  these  Melodies,  now  known  as 
the  Gregorian  Tones,  or  Psalm  Tones — '  Tones ' 
being  the  old  equivalent  of  '  Tunes  ' — have  been  in 
constant  use  ;  supplemented,  however,  by  two  irre- 
gular forms.  The  eight  Tones  are  written  in  the 
eight  first  Modes ;  ^  each  Tone  being  numbered  after 
the  Mode  it  represents.  Of  the  supplementary 
forms,  one,  called  the  Tonus  Peregrinus,  is  written 
in  Mode  IX. — usually  transposed,  in  performance, 
to  a  lower  pitch ;  while  the  other,  known  as  the 
*  See  page  16. 


The  Gregoria7i  Tones,  85 

Tonus  Regius,  represents  a  somewhat  abnormal 
form  of  Mode  VI.,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the  Sixth  Tone  Irregular.  In  the  Roman  Church, 
the  Tonus  Peregrinus  is  reserved,  exclusively,  for 
Psalm  cxiii.,  In  exitu  Israel,^  The  Tonus  Begins  is 
sung  to  the  Yersicle,  Domine  salvum  fac,  which 
precedes  the  Prayer  for  the  reigning  Sovereign,  at 
the  conclusion  of  High  Mass. 

All  these  Tones  are  constructed  upon  the  same 
principle;  a  principle  which  accords  so  perfectly 
with  the  genius  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  that  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  doubt  that  their  original  forms  were 
coa3val  with  the  verses  to  which  they  are  sung. 
Every  one  knows  that  Hebrew  Poetry  is  regulated, 
neither  by  the  laws  of  Prosody,  nor  those  of  Rhyme ; 
but,  by  a  peculiar  paralelKsm  of  sense.  A  Hebrew 
Verse  consists  of  two  clauses,  one  of  which  serves  as 
the  antithesis  of  the  other,  either,  by  enforcing  its 
meaning,  or  responding  to  its  sentiment.  Thus,  in 
the  earliest  example  of  Poetry  now  known  to  exist, 
(Gen.  iv.  23)  Lamech  says — 

Clause  a.  For  I  have  slain  a  man,  to  my  wounding: 

Clause  h.  And  a  young  man,  to  my  hurt. 

In  like  manner,  David  sings — 

^  In  the  '  Book  of  Common  Prayer/  Psalms  cxiv.  and  cxv. 
The  Tonus  Feregrinus  is  the  Melody  traditionally  believed  to  have 
been  sung  to  this  Psalm,  by  Our  Lord,  and  His  Disciples,  imme- 
diately after  the  institution  of  the  Last  Supper.    (See  page  19.) 


86 


The  Gregorian  Tones. 


Clause  a.  For  the  Lord  is  a  great  God : 

Clause  h.  And  a  great  King  above  all  gods. 

Wlien  adapted  to  the  Gregorian  Tones — or  Tunes 
— the  first  few  syllables  of  each  clause  are  recited,  in 
monotone,  on  the  Dominant  of  the  Mode  ^ — thence 
called  the  Reciting-Note.  The  closing  syllables  of 
clause  a  are  sung  to  a  short  melodious  phrase,  called, 
the  Mediation ;  those  of  clause  to  a  similar  phrase, 
called  the  Ending,  or  Close.  Several  of  the  Tones 
have  two,  three,  or  more  different  Endings  ;  but,  the 
Mediation — except  under  certain  abnormal  condi- 
tions connected  with  the  words — is  unchangeable. 
The  Intonation  consists  of  another  short  melodious 
phrase,  sung  to  the  opening  syllable  of  the  first  verse, 
only,  before  the  first  Reciting-Note.  Each  Tone, 
therefore,  consists  of  five  members;  viz.  (1)  the 
Intonation,  (2)  the  first  Reciting-Note,  (3)  the 
Mediation,  (4)  the  second  Reciting-Note,  (5)  the 
Ending.^  The  Psalms  were  never  sung  to  any 
other  music  than  this,  until  the  invention  of  the 
Anglican  Single  and  Double  Chant — avowedly  con- 
structed upon  the  same  principles — during  the  reign 
of  King  Charles  II. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  we  are  here 

^  See  the  Table  of  Modes,  page  17. 

*  In  Gregorian  Psalters,  the  numbers  of  the  Tones  are  usually 
abbreviated  thus  :  I.  1  ;  IV.  2  ;  that  is,  First  Tone,  Eirst  Ending ; 
Fourth  Tone,  Second  Ending  ;  etc.  etc. 


Met7'ical  Hymns, 


87 


speaking  of  pure  Psalmody,  properly  so  called. 
Metrical  Psalmody — the  reduction  of  tlie  Psalms 
to  rhymed  verses — was  a  thing  unknown,  before 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Metrical  Hymns, 
however,  have  been  sung,  in  the  Church,  from  the 
earliest  ages  ;  and  it  is  of  these  that  we  now  propose 
to  speak. 

A  Hymn,  known  as  (^w?  iXapov,  still  sung  in 
the  Eastern  Church,  and  attributed  to  Athenagenes, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  now  extant.  Little 
inferior  to  this,  in  point  of  antiquity,  is  the  *  Angelic 
Hymn  ' — Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo — mentioned  in  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  and  still  in  daily  use, 
throughout  the  whole  Christian  world.  Many  well- 
known  Hymns  of  the  Greek  Church  date  as  fp 
back  as  the  4th  century.  S.  Ephrem  of  Edessa,  anu 
S.  Chrysostom,  added  a  great  number  to  the  already 
copious  list;  and  S.  Ambrose,  whose  Latin  Hymns 
are  of  the  highest  order  of  merit,  wrought  an  equally 
great  work  for  the  Western  Church.  S.  Gregory 
the  Great  wrote  numerous  Hymns  ;  employing  more 
than  one  of  the  old  classic  forms  of  verse,  with 
extraordinary  effect.  Still  finer  were  the  Metrical 
Hymns  of  Prudentius,  and  Venantius  Fortunatus  ; 
and  many  other  poets,  of  more  or  less  ability, imitated, 
with  success,  the  verses  of  these  primitive  Hymno- 
logists.  About  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century, 
the  laws  of  classical  Prosody  were  abandoned,  and 


88 


Metrical  Hymns. 


[a.d.  1589. 


Hymns  were  written,  for  tlie  most  part,  in  what  was 
then  called  Prose ;  that  is  to  say — paradoxical  as 
the  explanation  may  seem — in  verses  containing  a 
regular  number  of  syllables,  rhythmically  arranged, 
and  often  carefully  rhymed,  but  not  dignified  with 
the  name  of  Poetry,  because  their  varied  metre  was 
governed  by  the  laws  of  accent,  instead  of  quantity. 
A  great  number  of  Hymns,  written  in  this  barbarous 
though  extremely  beautiful  form  of  '  Monkish  Latin,* 
were  sung  under  the  name  of  Proses,  or  Sequences, 
after  the  Epistle  and  Gradual,  at  solemn  Mass ;  and 
some  few  of  these,  including  the  Stahat  Mater,  Dies 
irce,  and  Veni  Sande  Spiritus — are  still  used  for 
this  purpose. 

The  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies  proper  to  the  early 
Hymns  of  the  Church  are  of  extraordinary  beauty ; 
and,  in  all  probability,  were  composed,  as  a  general 
rule,  by  the  author  of  the  verses.  A  large  collection 
will  be  found  in  the  Vesperale  Bomanum ;  and  still 
more  in  the  Antiphonarium.  Composers  of  the  Poly- 
phonic School  frequently  enriched  them  with  mag- 
nificent harmonies,  sometimes  of  very  elaborate 
character.  In  the  year  1589,  Palestrina  published 
a  large  collection,  of  unrivalled  beauty,  under  the 
title  of  Hymni  totius  anni ;  and  our  own  Tallis  in- 
cluded some  very  fine  ones  in  his  Gantiones  sacrce. 

Hymns  and  Carols,  of  a  somewhat  lighter  cha- 
racter than  these,  were  frequently  sung,  in  mediaeval 


A.D.  1524.] 


Metrical  Hymns, 


89 


Mysteries,  and  Miracle  Plays,^  and  became  extremely 
popular  among  tlie  people.  Martin  Luther  took 
advantage  of  this  circumstance ;  and,  well  knowing 
the  effect  of  Songs  upon  the  popular  mind,  wrote  an 
immense  number  of  German  Hymns,  which,  adapted 
to  well-known  Melodies  of  the  day,  both  sacred,  and 
secular,  were  caught  up,  by  the  nation  at  large,  and 
adopted  as  an  indispensable  concomitant  of  the  new 
faith.  The  first  harmonised  collection  of  these 
Hymns  was  published,  at  Wittenberg,  by  Luther's 
friend,  Johannes  Walther,  in  1524,  set  for  four,  five, 
and  six  voices,  -with  the  Melody  in  the  Tenor.  So 
successful  was  this  work,  that  it  was  reprinted  in 
1525,  with  a  preface  by  Luther  himself;  and  it  had 
undoubtedly  a  great  share  in  promoting  that  intense 
love  for  the  national  Chorale  which  soon  spread 
through  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  Later 
composers  introduced  the  old  Melodies,  with  immense 
success,  into  their  Oratorios,  their  Church  Cantatas, 
and  even  their  Organ  Voluntaries.  Sebastian  Bach 
developed  their  beauties,  in  this  manner,  with  a 
masterly  form  of  treatment,  which,  accompanied  by 
a  nameless  charm,  the  secret  of  which  was  known  to 
himself  alone,  has  defied  all  attempts  at  rivalry, 
from  his  day  to  our  own ;  though  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  Mendelssohn,  in  his  S.  Paul,  and  Hymn 
of  Praise,  has  not  fallen  very  far  short  of  it. 

*  For  description  of  these,  see  Chapter  XII. 


go  Clement  Mar ot.  [a.d.  1541. 

Luther's  example  was  followed  by  Calvin,  at 
Geneva,  with  equal  success,  but  far  less  artistic 
feeling,  as  a  comparison  of  Walther's  Psalter  with 
Guillaume  Franc's,  published  at  Strassburg,  in  1545, 
by  Calvin's  express  command,  will  abundantly  prove. 
This  was  adapted  to  the  French  version  of  the 
Psalms,  carried  as  far  as  Psalm  L.,  by  Clement 
Marot,  and  afterwards  completed  by  Theodore 
Beza;  and  the  Melodies — popular  tunes  of  the 
time,  and  not,  as  has  sometimes  been  said,  com- 
posed by  Guillaume  Franc  himself — were  given  in 
unison.^ 

The  first  French  Psalter,  containing  eighty-three 
of  the  Psalms  of  Clement,  and  Beza,  was  printed, 
at  Lyons,  in  1561,  with  the  Melodies  harmonised, 
for  four,  five,  and  six  voices,  by  Louis  Bourgeois. 
In  1565,  a  more  elaborate  setting,  by  Claude 
Goudimel — Palestrina's  instructor — was  issued,  at 
Paris,  by  the  well-known  French  publishers,  Adrien 
Le  Roy,  and  Eobert  Ballard.  This  work,  reprinted, 
at  Delft,  in  1602  and  1607,  probably  cost  the  great 
composer  his  life ;  since,  though  originally  intended 
for,  and  first  sung  by.  King  Francois  I.,  and  his 
Courtiers,  Marot's  verses  were  soon  claimed  by  the 
Calvinists  as  their  exclusive  property,  and  there  is 
strong  reason  for  believing  that  the  fact  of  his 

^  Mention  has  been  made  of  an  earlier  Psalter,  printed,  at 
Geneva,  in  1542  ;  but,  Clement  Marot  had  not  then  completed  the 
versification  of  the  first  fifty  Psalms. 


A.D.  1572.]  Claude  GoudimeL    Claudin  le  Jeune,  91 

having  set  tliem  to  Music  led  to  the  suspicion  which 
ended  in  the  assassination  of  Goudimel,  on  S.  Bar- 
tholomew's Day,  1572.^  Another  very  beautiful 
collection,  by  Claudin  le  Jeune,  with  the  Melody,  as 
usual,  in  the  Tenor,  was  published,  at  Paris,  in 
1G06  ;  and  a  second,  by  the  same  author,  issued  at 
Paris,  in  1613,  was  reprinted,  at  Leyden,  in  1633. 
Both  these  collections  appear  to  have  been  post- 
humously published. 

The  first  Metrical  Psalter  published  in  England 
was  one  printed  by  John  Daye,  in  1562,  with 
unisonous  Melodies  adapted  to  the  '  Old  Version ' 
by  Sternhold,  and  Hopkins.  In  1563,  John  Daye 
printed  another,,  set  for  four  voices,  with  the  Melody 
in  the  Tenor,  by  Thomas  Tallis,  Richard  Brimle, 
William  Parsons,  Thomas  Causton,  J.  Hake,  and 
Richard  Edwards.  Only  two  copies  of  this  are 
known  to  be  now  in  existence  ;  one,  in  the  Library 
of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  the  other — an 
imperfect  one,  containing  the  Medius  and  Tenor 
parts  only — in  the  British  Museum.  In  1567, 
another  book,  now  excessively  rare,  was  also 
imprinted,  hut  not  published,  by  the  same  John 
Daye.  This  was  '  The  first  Quinquagene  '  of  Metri- 
cal  Psalms,    by   Archbishop    Parker,  containing 

^  He  is  said  to  have  been  thrown  from  a  window,  together  with 
a  certain  Mons.  Perot ;  dragged  through  the  streets ;  and  finally 
thrown  into  the  river.  D'Aubigny  describes  the  event  as  having 
taken  place  at  Paris.    Thuanus  says  it  happened  at  Lyons. 


92 


Thomas  Ravenscroft.        [a.d.  1621. 


Eight  Tunes  by  Tallis,  written  in  the  Eight  Eccle- 
siastical Modes;  the  eighth  Tune  being  the  well- 
known  Canon  now  universally  sung  to  the  '  Evening 
Hymn.'  Another  Psalter,  by  Guglielmo  Damon, 
was  published  in  1579 ;  and  yet  another,  by  the 
same  author,  in  1591,  exhibiting  an  innovation, 
which,  in  those  days,  must  have  seemed  very  strange ; 
viz.,  that  '  the  highest  part  singe th  the  Church  Tune/ 
Six  years  before  the  publication  of  this  startling 
novelty — that  is  to  say,  in  1585 — John  Cosyns  set 
sixty  Psalms,  for  five  and  six  voices,  to  the  Tunes 
first  printed  by  Daye.  In  1592,  Thomas  Est  (or  Este) 
published  a  Psalter,  more  comprehensive  than  any  of 
its  predecessors,  with  Tunes  skilfully  harmonised  by 
the  best  English  composers  of  the  day.  This  book 
was  reprinted,  in  1594;  and  has  been  reproduced, 
in  our  own  day,  in  a  complete  form,  by  the  Musical 
Antiquarian  Society.  Another  collection,  by  John 
Mundy,  was  published  in  the  same  year.  But,  by 
far  the  finest  work  of  the  kind  ever  given  to  the  world 
was  The  tvhole  Boolce  of  Psalmes,  by  Thomas  Ravens- 
croft, printed  in  1621,  and  containing  a  large  number 
of  the  settings  in  Est's  excellent  volume,  with  others 
by  Thomas  Tallis,  John  Douland,  Thomas  Morley, 
John  Ward,  John  Milton  (the  father  of  the  Poet), 
John  Bennet,  and  seventeen  other  composers, 
besides  Eavenscroft  himself;  all  harmonised  for 
four  voices,  in  the  purest  polyphonic  style.  Richard 
Alison's  Psalter,  dated  1599,  can  scarcely  be  classed 


A.D.  1 62 1.]  The  '  Old  Hundredth  Psalm'  93 

with  these,  as  it  includes  accompaniments  for  the 
Lute,  and  other  instruments. 

In  all  these  works,  except  that  of  1591,  the 
Melody  is  set  in  the  Tenor,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
thundered  forth,  in  unison,  or  octaves,  by  the  general 
congregation,  while  the  accompanying  harmonies 
are  sung  by  the  Choir.  The  effect  of  this  mode  of 
performance  is  very  good.  Some  years  ago,  J.  Dou- 
land's  setting  of  the  '  Old  100th  Psalm '  was  con- 
stantly sung,  m  this  manner,  at  Salisbury  Cathedral, 
with  great  success.  In  exemplification  of  the  style 
we  shall  contrast  this  setting  with  Claudin  le  Jeune's 
arrangement  of  the  same  Melody. 

PSAUME  CXXXIV, 

(Known,  in  England,  as  the  *  Old  100'^  Time.') 
j)^^  Claudin  le  Jeune.  (Paris,  1613.) 


-<S> 

Haute-contre. '       '      'f^'  I  .p^.  ~a 

ToAlle.  {Plain  Chant.) 


Basse-coyitre.  ® 


i 


ill,  ^  \  A 


— ' — i — r — 


Fig.  18. 


^  It  Tvill  be  seen  that  the  Bass  here  passes  above  the  Melody 
sung  by  the  Tenor. 


94  The  '  Old  Hundredth  Psalm ^  [a.d.  1621. 

Psalm  C.    (*  French  Tune.') 
John  Douland. 

CanhlS.  From  Ravenscroft's  "  Whole  Booke  of  Psalraa  "  (London,  1821% 


3 

m 

-J— H— 

 \ — 

 h-^ — \ — j — A  \  

1     1     1  M 
Medius.  ' 

Tzr^r,  or  Plain  Songe. 

 ?T  <S»-^ 

cn — 1 — fs-P 

 1  1  1^^  1  Q  

 f 

 1- 

-p-.i  1 
— I*"* 

1 

!  ^ 

■6>-  .    Q  a 
1  1 

_0!  ^ 

Fig.  19. 


The  superiority  of  Douland' s  setting  of  this  grand 
old  Tune  to  that  of  the  French  composer  will  be  seen 
at  a  glance  ;  but  both  are  replete  with  a  bold  dignity 
for  which  we  seek  in  vain,  in  Hymnals  of  more 
recent  date.  The  custom  of  placing  the  Melody  in 
the  Tenor  died  out,  before  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century. 


END  OF  BOOK  THE  SECOND. 


BOOK  THE  THIRD. 

MUSIC  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH 
CENTUEY. 


CHAPTER  X. 


ON  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  DECADENCE,  AND  THE 
INVENTION  OF  THE  MONODIC  STILE. 

The  progress  of  Art  is  governed  by  laws  no  less 
inexorable  than  those  which  regulate  the  course  of 
IN'ature.  The  first  appearance  of  a  new  form  of 
development  never  fails  to  attract  the  attention  of 
a  band  of  devotees,  the  least  intelligent  of  whom 
follow  it  for  the  sake  of  its  novelty,  while  learned 
students  investigate  its  nature  and  characteristics, 
and  true  genius  accepts,  or  rejects  it,  by  virtue  of 
the  unerring  instinct  which  never  fails  to  lead  its 
possessor  into  the  paths  which  it  is  most  desirable 
that  he  should  tread.  Should  the  movement  be 
founded  upon  false  principles,  it  will  pass  away,  with 
the  fashion  of  the  moment.  Should  it  be  based  upon 
a  great  artistic  truth,  it  will  infallibly  take  root ; 
bring  forth  fruits  of  steadily  increasing  interest  and 
value ;  culminate  in  a  period  of  brilliant  success ; 
and  finally  give  place  to  some  new  movement,  the 

H 


98 


Claudio  Mont  ever de   [a.d.  1568-1643. 


character  of  whicli  will,  in  all  probability,  lead  its 
followers  in  a  totally  different  direction.  The  con- 
tinuity of  two  waves  of  progress  is  a  thing  unknown. 
Each  phase  of  development  is  distinct  in  itself ;  is 
born,  increases,  culminates,  and,  of  necessity,  fades 
away  to  make  room  for  its  successor.  The  Art- 
historian  meets  with  no  trace  of  any  otber  law  of 
progress  than  this. 

The  extinction  of  the  Polyphonic  Schools  was 
very  sudden.  So  sudden,  that  one  can  point  to  the 
exact  moment  of  their  fall,  whicb  was  caused  by  what 
superficial  observers  might  characterise  as  a  very 
simple  invention,  though  set  forth  by  a  composer  of 
transcendent  genius. 

The  composer  was  Claudio  Monteverde,  a  Violist, 
born,  at  Cremona,  in  1568,  admitted,  in  early  youth, 
into  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  and  elected, 
in  1613,  Maestro  di  Cajppella  at  the  Cathedral  of 
S.  Mark,  in  Venice,  which  office  lie  retained  until 
his  death,  which  took  place  in  1643. 

The  invention  was,  the  employment  of  Unprepared 
Discords — notably,  that  of  the  Dominant  Seventh. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Monteverde  was  one 
of  the  boldest  thinkers,  and  most  original  com- 
posers, that  the  world  of  Art  has  ever  produced. 
His  only  mistake  was,  the  attempt  to  amalgamate 
two  styles  between  wliicli  union  was  as  impossible 
as  between  oil  and  wine.    Every  one  knows  that  the 


A.D.  1568-1643.]  Unprepared  Discords.  99 

only  discords  permitted  in  Strict  Counterpoint  are, 
those  of  transition,  and  suspension.  The  introduc- 
tion of  those  of  a  fundamental  nature,  employed  by 
direct  percussion,  destroyed  the  School  of  Palestrina 
at  a  blow.  An  innovator  bold  enough  to  surmount 
Westminster  Hall  with  a  Palladian  dome,  or  the 
Parthenon,  with  an  Early  English  spire,  would  find 
no  mercy  at  the  hands  of  the  meanest  mason  :  yet. 
Early  English  spires  and  Palladian  domes  are  very 
beautiful  things,  in  their  appointed  places.  And 
Unprepared  Discords  are  ineffably  beautiful.  With- 
out these,  passionate  utterance  in  Music  would  be 
impossible  ;  instrumental  accompaniments  would  be 
too  weak  for  effective  employment ;  and  the  Musical 
Drama  would  degenerate  into  a  vulgar  caricature. 
But  in  Polyphonic  Counterpoint,  their  effect  is  so 
incongruous,  so  foreign  to  the  inmost  essence  of  the 
style,  that  even  Monteverde's  own  Church  Music  is 
intolerable,  though  as  a  dramatic  composer,  he 
is  a  century  in  advance  of  his  age;  as  we  shall 
see,  in  a  future  chapter.  And  well  would  it 
have  been  for  him,  and  for  Art,  had  he  entirely 
devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  Dramatic 
Music ;  for,  as  a  Polyphonist,  he  holds  a  position 
far  inferior  to  that  claimed  by  the  pioneers  of  the 
earlier  schools.^ 

1  The  irreconcilable  character  of  the  Polyphonic  and  the  Modern 
Schools  is  most  clearly  seen  in  their  Cadences,  which,  though  based 

H  2 


The  Modern  Cadence,  [a. d.  1586- 1643. 

The  change  he  introduced  took  the  musical  world 
by  storm ;  and  was  instantly  adopted,  by  a  host  of 
ardent  admirers.  But,  since  none  of  these  possessed 
any  knowledge  of  Counterpoint,  a  long  period  elapsed 
before  the  new  School  produced  compositions  worthy 
to  be  compared  with  those  they  displaced.  A 
great  principle  had  been  enunciated,  but  it  cost  a 
century  of  hard  labour  to  turn  it  to  profitable 
account. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Polyphonia  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury died  out,  completely — with  Gregorio  Allegri, 
in  Home;  with  Giovanni  della  Croce,  in  Venice; 
with  Orlando  di  Lasso,  in  the  Netherlands;  and, 
with  Orlando  Gibbons,  in  England.    In  our  own 

upon  the  same  theoretical  principles,  have,  aesthetically,  nothing  in 
common  with  each  other. 

Polyphonic  Cadence. 

^  Palestrina  (I6th  centuryX 

 1  1  -— ^-L-P  P  -l-^+iis?H — 0 

Fig.  20. 

Modern  Cadence. 

Dr.  DUPUI3  (18th  century). 


-1          -A  - 

1  - 

A.  J. 

— ^  ^— 

"CP' 

■    i       ■  |- .  -  r — 

Fig.  21. 


A.D.  [652.]        The  Origin  of  the  Glee.  lOi 

country,  alone,  did  a  trace  of  it  survive  in  conjunc- 
tion with  tlie  innovations  of  the  newer  style  :  but, 
that  trace  was  a  very  beautiful  one,  and  gave  birth 
to  an  entirely  new,  and  eminently  national  Art-form 
— that  of  the  Glee.^  This  charming  conception 
differs  essentially  from  the  Madrigal,  in  that  it  is 
written  in  the  modern  Major  or  Minor  Scales,  instead 
of  in  the  old  Ecclesiastical  Modes ;  and,  from  the 
German  Part  Song,  in  that  it  is,  as  a  general  rule, 
far  more  elaborately  constructed,  and,  that  its  style 
is,  in  all  cases,  thoroughly,  and  unmistakably,  Eng- 
lish. Its  greatest  masters  were,  Stevens,  Cooke, 
Paxton,  Danby,  S.  Webbe,  Battishill,  the  Earl  of 
Mornington,  John  Hindle,  Spofforth,  Dr.  Callcott, 
Thomas  Attwood,  and  William  Horsley,  Mus.  Bac. 
Happily,  the  line  of  succession  still  flourishes ;  and 
shows,  yet,  no  sign  of  approaching  extinction. 

In  Italy,  the  immediate  result  of  the  change  was, 
the  abandonment  of  Counterpoint,  which  Monteverde 
never  understood,  and  his  followers  avowedly 
despised ;  and  the  substitution  of  a  simple  Melody, 
accompanied  by  a  still  more  simple  Thorough-Bass 
for  the  exquisite  Harmonies  of  Palestrina,  and  Luca 
Marenzio.  These  Melodies  were,  at  first,  supremely 
uninteresting.    Having  nothing  to  give  in  exchange 

2  The  earliest  compositions  published  under  this  name  are  con- 
tained in  Select  Musicall  Ay  res  and  Dialogues,  printed  by  John 
Playford,    [London:  1652.] 


102  The  Monodic  School,    [a.d.  1586-1643. 


for  the  banished  resources  of  Imitation,  and  Fugue, 
the  new  race  of  composers  attempted  nothing  beyond 
the  construction  of  a  formless  cantilena^  the  restric- 
tion of  which  to  a  single  voice-part  originated  the 
name  of  The  Monodic  School.  The  accompaniment 
was  usually  played  upon  the  Theorbo,  or  large  Lute  ; 
and  the  invention  of  the  Basso  continuo,  or  Thorough- 
BasSy  by  which  the  necessary  Harmonies  were  indi- 
cated, is  ascribed,  by  Michael  Praetorius,  to  Luca 
Viadana,  although  it  is  now  quite  certain  that 
Figured  Basses  were  composed,  and  printed,  by  Peri, 
Oaccini,  and  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  some  years  before 
the  earliest  date  to  which  Yiadana's  claim  can  be 
referred. 

The  earliest  works  of  the  Monodic  School  which 
appeared  in  print  were.  Peri's  Euridicey  (1600), 
Emilio  del  Cavaliere's  La  rappresentazione  delV 
anima  e  del  corpo^  (1600),  and  Caccini's  Nuove 
musiche,  (1602). 


CHAPTER  XI. 


ON  THE  INVENTION  AND  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  OPERA. 

During  the  closing  years  of  the  16tli  century,  a  little 
band  of  literary  and  artistic  dilettanti  were  accus- 
tomed to  meet,  periodically,  in  Florence,  for  purposes 
of  discussion,  and  mutual  entertainment,  at  the 
Palace  of  Giovanni  Bardi,  Conte  di  Yernio.  The 
leading  members  of  this  coterie  were,  Yincenzo 
Galilei — the  father  of  the  great  Astronomer — Giulio 
Caccini,  Jacopo  Peri,  Pietro  Strozzi,  Ottavio  Rinuc- 
cini,  and  the  Conte  di  Yernio  himself — all  men  of 
high  mental  cultivation,  deeply  imbued  with  the 
principles  of  the  Renaissance,  and  possessed  with  an 
ardent  desire  to  transplant  them  from  the  domain  of 
Literature  to  that  of  Music.  Their  love  for  every- 
thing connected  with  the  traditions  of  classical  anti- 
quity led  them  to  turn  their  chief  attention  to  the 
revival  of  the  system  of  declamation  peculiar  to 
Greek  Tragedy.  We  have  written  our  opening 
chapters  in  vain,  if  our  readers  fail  to  see  that  the 
realisation  of  this  wild  dream  was  absolutely  un- 


104  The  Invention  of  Recitative,   [a.d.  1600. 

attainable.  Hellenic  Music  perished,  forever,  with 
the  Pythagorean  division  of  the  Scale.  No  singer, 
accustomed  to  the  intonation  of  the  Hexachord,  could 
ever,  bj  any  possibility,  have  accommodated  his 
voice  to  the  subtle  falsehoods  of  the  earlier  system. 
But,  earnest  endeavour  is  never  wasted.  The  Al- 
chymistsof  the  Middle  Ages,  in  their  visionary  search 
for  the  Philosopher's  Stone,  discovered  priceless 
secrets  connected  with  the  Science  of  Chemistry : 
and,  in  like  manner,  the  enthusiasts  of  the  Palazzo 
Bardi  stumbled,  unwittingly,  upon  a  discovery  of 
infinitely  greater  value  than  the  lost  method  of  which 
they  were  in  quest.  Their  wild  desire  to  unveil  the 
mysteries  of  a  past  antiquity  led,  strangely  enough, 
to  the  invention  of  an  entirely  new  Art- form,  apart 
from  which  Dramatic  Music  could  never  have  existed 
— that,  now  familiar  to  every  one,  under  its  modern 
name  of  Recitative. 

The  new  style  of  composition — originally  called 
Ijo  stile  ra'pjpresentativo^  or  Musica  jparlante — is  said 
to  have  been  first  employed  in  a  dramatic  piece, 
called  Dafne,  by  Jacopo  Peri,  privately  performed,  at 
the  Palazzo  Corsi,  in  1597  ;  in  a  Cantata,  called  II 
Conte  TJgolino,  by  Yincenzo  Galilei;  and  in  three 
Musical  Dramas — II  Satiro,  La  disperazione  di 
FilenOy  and  II  giuoco  della  cieca — by  Emilio  del 
Cavaliere.  But,  unhappily,  no  trace  of  any  of  these 
works  can  now  be  discovered,  either  in  MS.,  or  in 
print. 


A.D.  1600.]  The  First  Opera,  105 

The  first  Opera,  ever  performed  in  public,  was 
Jacopo  Peri's  Euridice.  The  libretto  which  formed 
the  poetical  basis  of  this  most  interesting  work  was 
furnished  bj  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  and  set  to  music, 
in  a  complete  form,  both  by  Peri,  and  Caccini :  but 
Peri's  Opera  alone  was  performed,  at  Florence,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  marrias^e  of  Henri  lY.  of  France 
with  Maria  de'  Medici,  in  December,  1600.^  Fortu- 
nately for  the  history  of  xVrt,  both  Operas  were  pub- 
lished, in  Florence,  before  the  close  of  the  year  ;  and 
Peri's  was  reprinted,  at  Venice,  in  1608.  Very  few 
of  these  precious  volumes  are  now  known  to  be  in 
existence  ;  but,  the  British  Museum  possesses  a  fine 
copy  of  the  Venice  edition  of  Peri's  work,  formerly 
the  property  of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  and,  on  the 
authority  of  this,  we  are  enabled  to  present  our 
readers  with  an  example  of  the  Music,  which  will 
convey  a  far  clearer  idea  of  its  character  than  any 
verbal  description.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Music 
of  this  example  is  barred,  throughout.  The  entire 
Opera  is  thus  divided,  in  the  printed  copy,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  practice  of  the  Polyphonic  composers, 
who  never  employed  the  Bar,  either  in  their  MSS,  or 
their  printed  works. 

^  Ambros  tells  us  that  Music  selected  from  both  works  was  sung 
at  the  public  performance.  But,  no  mention  of  this  is  made  on 
the  title-page  of  Caccini's  Opera,  though,  on  that  of  Peri,  we  find 
the  words,  Majypresentate  nello  Sposallzio  della  Christianissima 
Maria  Medici  Rerjina  di  Francia  e  di  Navarra. 


io6 


Euridice. 


[a.d.  1600. 


i 


S3: 


Jacopo  Peri.    From  Huridice  (1600). 


Ra-dop-pia    0  fiamm'e  lu  -  mi      al  memo-ra- bil  gior*no,  Fe 


&c. 


bo,  ch'il  car-ro  d'or  ri  -  vol 


gi  in -tor  -  no. 


m 


ip 


Fig.  22. 


And  now  it  was  Monteverde's  turn  to  come  to  tbe 
front.    I£  lie  did  not  invent  the  Opera,  it  was  none 
the  less  through  him  that  its  invention  became 
possible.    The  pure  concords  of  Palestrina,  and  Luca 
Marenzio,  could  never  have  been  used  as  a  vehicle  for 
the  expression  of  the  strong  passions  which  have 
been  recognised,  in  all  ages,  as  the  life  and  soul  of 
the  Drama,  in  all  its  varied  phases.    Nor  could  they 
have  been  fitly  associated  with  the  instrumental 
accompaniments   which  are  indispensable   to  the 
effective  delineation  of  such  passions.    But,  the  new 
system  provided  for  all  this,  and  more.    It  adapted 
itself  to  the  construction  of  forms,  before  undreamed 
of;  opened  paths  which  have  been  fearlessly  trodden, 
by  men  of  genius,  during  three  succeeding  centuries 
of  steady  progress ;  and  laid  the  foundation  of  all 
that  is  great,  and  good,  and  beautiful,  in  modern 
Music.    If  we  have  had  good  reason  to  deplore 


A.D.  1607.] 


Arianna. 


107 


Monte verde's  ill-judged  interference  with  the  purity 
of  the  Polyphonic  Schools,  we  owe  him  nothing  but 
gratitude  for  the  new  life  he  infused  into  those  by 
which  they  were  succeeded.  And,  the  reality  of  his 
genius  was  not  long  in  asserting  itself.  On  the 
death  of  Ingegneri,  in  1603,  he  succeeded  to  the  im- 
portant post  of  Maestro  di  Cappella,  at  the  Court  of 
Yincenzo  Gonzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua.  In  this  capacity 
he  was  called  upon  to  provide  a  musical  entertain- 
ment for  the  wedding  festival  of  Francesco  Gonzaga, 
the  Duke's  son,  whose  marriage  with  Margherita, 
Infanta  of  Savoy,  was  celebrated,  in  1607,  with 
extraordinary  magnificence. 

Excited  by  the  remembrance  of  Peri's  success,  at 
Florence,  and  anxious,  if  possible,  to  eclipse  it,  the 
Duke  invited  the  poet,  Ottavio  Hinuccini,  to  furnish 
the  libretto  of  a  grand  Opera,  for  performance  at 
the  wedding  feast.  Hinuccini  produced  two,  entitled 
Dafne,  and  Arianna.  The  Music  of  the  first  was 
composed  by  Marco  di  Zanobi  da  Gagliano  ;  that  of 
the  second,  by  Monteverde.  The  success  of  Dafne, 
though  very  decided,  was  completely  forgotten  in 
that  of  Arianna,  and  Gagliano  himself  was  the  first 
to  acknowledge  the  superiority  of  his  rival,  whose 
music  produced  so  profound  a  sensation,  that,  during 
the  performance  of  the  Scene  in  which  Ariadne 
bemoans  the  departure  of  her  faithless  lover,  the 
audience  were  moved  to  tears — a  touching  proof  of 


io8  Arianna.  [a.d.  1607. 

the  composer's  power,  wliicli  was  again  observed, 
when  the  Opera  was  revived,  thirty  years  later,  at 
Venice.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  passages  of 
Eecitative,  quoted  by  Doni,  this  Scene — Lasciatemi 
morire — is  the  only  part  of  the  Opera  that  has  been 
preserved  to  us ;  and,  in  order  that  the  reader  may 
form  his  own  judgment  as  to  the  merits  of  a  work 
which  attained  such  unbounded  popularity,  nearly 
three  centuries  ago,  we  shall  present  it  to  him  exactly 
in  the  form  in  which  it  was  originally  written,  leaving 
him  to  fill  up  the  chords  indicated  by  Monteverde's 
figures,  at  his  discretion.    (See  Fig.  23.) 

The  immense  success  of  Arianna  tempted  the 
Duke  to  present  his  friends  with  another  Opera,  in 
1608  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  Monteverde  was 
commissioned  to  compose  it.  The  subject  chosen 
was  Orfeo  ;  founded  upon  the  same  classical  myth  as 
Peri's  Euridice,  though  upon  a  different  libretto.  We 
cannot  doubt  that  this  proved  to  be  a  far  more  per- 
fect work  than  Arianna,  though  the  unfortunate  loss 
of  its  predecessor  prevents  us  from  demonstrating 
the  fact.  It  is,  indeed,  certain  that  no  composer  of 
the  period  was  able  to  produce  an  Opera  worthy  to 
be  compared  with  it.  Fortunately,  it  was  published, 
in  a  complete  form,  at  Venice ,  in  1609,  and  reprinted, 
in  1615.  Both  editions  are  now  excessively  rare. 
The  only  copy  we  have  ever  had  the  good  fortune  to 
see  is  one  of  the  second  edition,  formerly  in  the 


A.D.  1607.] 


Arii 


I  ami  a. 


109 


II  Lam  en  to  d'Ariaxxa. 

Claudio  Moxteterde  (1607). 


L-^  1 


Las  -  cia  -    -  te  -  mi  mo  -  ri  -   re,  Las  -  cia  -  te 


,  -^'^ 

 r 

 ^  

-    mi  mo 

— ^ 

-  ri   -  re 

E     che  TO 

Hp  ^-^^ 
-  le    -    te  voi... 

m  = 

=1  ^ 

 G  

^  

 i  e> — 

=1: 


— •  »  ^ 

che    mi    con  -  for   -  te 


in    CO  -  si       du  -  ra 


—Q  1  1  , 

s  • 

sor  - 

te       in  CO  -  si  gran 

mar  •  ti  -  re  ?       Las  -  cia   -    te  - 

'  1 

— I 

=1  - 

1 — i_J_ 

— 1  \ — 

rJ 

I— <5i  S>  1 

-m — m- 


A  V 


1:: 


mi    mo  -  ri  -  re, 


Las  -  cia  -  te  -  mi 


mo  -  ri  -   re  ! 


Fig.  23. 


possession  of  Sir  Jolin  Hawkins,  but,  now,  the 
property  of  Her  Majesty,  and  preserved  in  the  Royal 
Library,  at  Buckingham  Palace.    This  copy  was, 


I  10 


Orfeo. 


[a.d.  1608. 


probably,  well  known  to  Dr.  Burnej,  as  well  as  to 
Sir  Jolin  Hawkins  ;  for  botb  historians  give  copious 
extracts  from  the  Opera.  Since  their  examples  are 
within  the  reach  of  everyone,  we  have  selected 
another  portion  of  the  work  which  we  believe  we 
ourselves  were  the  first  to  publish,  in  the  Musical 
Times  for  April,  1880 — the  opening  Prelude :  remark- 
able as  being  the  earliest  Operatic  Overture  in 
existence.  In  arranging  this  for  publication,  we 
have  been  careful  to  represent  every  note  included 
in  the  original  nve-part  Score ;  and,  also,  to  repro- 
duce the  original  title,  word  for  word.    (See  Fig.  24.) 

Notwithstanding  his  double  triumph  at  the  Court 
of  Mantua,  Monteverde  composed  no  more  Operas, 
during  the  time  that  he  remained  in  command  of  the 
Duke's  Cappella.  Indeed,  the  expenses  attendant 
upon  the  production  of  such  works,  in  those  early 
times,  were  so  enormous,  that  not  even  Princes  could 
indulge  in  so  costly  a  luxury  every  day.  In  1613, 
the  now  famous  composer  accepted  the  appointment 
of  Maestro  di  Cajopella  at  the  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Mark,  at  Venice,  and  necessarily  occupied  himself 
with  the  composition  of  works  of  a  very  different 
kind,  and  of  infinitely  inferior  merit.  But,  after  an 
interval  of  eleven  years,  he  composed,  at  the  instance 
of  Girolamo  Mocenigo,  a  Dramatic  Interlude,  called 
'  II  Oombattimento  di  Tancredi  e  Cloi^inda/  founded 
on  an  episode  in  Tasso's  Gerusalemme  liber ata,  and 


A.D.  1608.] 


Orfeo. 


1 1 1 


Toccata  die  si  suona  avanti  il  levar  de  la  tela  tre  volte  con  tutti 
ll  stromenti,  ^  si  fa  un  Tuono  piU  alto  volendo  sonar  le  trombe  con 
le  sordine. 
TOCCATO. 


Clatjdio  Monteverde  (1608). 


i 


I  I 


^  ^  ^ 


S3: 


r — ^ 

^^^^ 

1 

1  1 

^5  _.  r5 

J 

N  s  ^^^^  f^^fci 


^1^^^,  ^^^^  ^^^1^1 

I  -m-0-0-m-  I  -0-m-0'0—m- 

 ^       —  — 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


r 


^  gS  ^  ! 
^  ,^  ^  ^ 


s  s 


-J-  l\ 

:g3.  ~:rg3: 


55  P5  ^ 


I         !^  ^ 


22: 


1— J 


112  II  Combattimento  di  Tancredi,    [a.d.  1624. 


RITORNELLO.  i    w  i    i  i 

'    N   s  .    j      1      I  J^^-       M  J- J^i^^-J-^^ 


5  •  I 

— r- 

-!  ^ — 

— «s> — 

p     •    ■      .  \-  r? 

-0-      ^  1  ^  \    -0-      -0-      ^    VM—m-  S  1 


dU^  ! 


I      1  1      1   I    1     I  1 

I     I    I      I  1 

S       -0-  -0- 


■w — r — — y—\  p- 


>  1  "p- 


i    '    '  I     r  I  I 

Fig.  24. 

conceived  in  a  more  advanced  style  tlian  Orfeo  itself. 
The  piece  was  privately  performed,  at  the  Palazzo 
Mocenigo,  in  1624;  and  printed,  in  1638,  at  tlie 
end  of  the  Composer's  Madrigali  guerrieri  e  amorosi. 
It  contains,  among  other  orchestral  novelties,  pizzi- 
cato passages,  for  the  stringed  instruments,  and  a 
genuine  tremolo.  This  last  innovation  so  astonished 
the  performers,  that  they  refused  to  play  it,  until 
compelled  to  do  so,  by  the  exercise  of  Monte- 
verde's  despotic  will.  The  passage  is  so  interesting, 
as  the  first  example  of  an  effect  now  in  constant 
request,  that  the  reader  will  doubtless  be  glad  to  see 
how  it  was  treated  by  its  inventor.    (See  Fig.  25.) 

In  the  year  1630,  Grirolamo  Mocenigo's  daughter, 
Giustiniana,  became  the  wife  of  Lorenzo  Giustiniani; 
and  Monteverde  was  invited  to  grace  the  nuptial 


A.D.  1630.]  Proserpina  rapit a. 


m 


CLArDio  MoyxEVF.r.DE  (1624). 
from  II  ComhaUimento  di  Tancredi  e  Clorinda. 


S     ^   N    N  S 


Tomano  al  fer  -  ro, 


Tornauo  al  fer  -  ro, 


Tornano  al  ferro  e   I'u-  no  e  I'al  -  ti'O    tin  -  ge  di  mol  -  to  san  -  gue 


&c. 


Fig.  25. 

celebrations  with  a  new  grand  Opera.  The  prepa- 
ration of  the  Jihretfo  was  confided  to  Giulio  Strozzi, 
who  chose,  for  his  subject,  the  story  of  Froseiyina 
rapita.  The  success  of  this  work  is  said  to  have 
been  even  greater  than  ihsit  of  Avian  na ;  but,  un- 
happily, no  part  of  it  has  been  preserved.  Nor  was 
it  possible  for  the  Composer  to  follow  up  his  triumph, 
as  at  Mantua,  by  a  second  work ;  for  the  progress  of 
Art  was  fatally  interrupted,  during  that  year  of 
horror,  by  the  first  outbreak  of  the  terrible  plague, 
which  devastated,  not  Venice  alone,  but  the  whole 
of  Italy,  and,  in  the  short  space  of  sixteen  months, 
dragged  fift}^  thousand  victims  to  the  grave.  Monte- 

I 


114  Death  of  Monteverde        [a.d.  1643. 

verde  appears  to  have  been  deeply  impressed  by  the 
event ;  and  must,  almost  immediately  afterwards, 
have  begun  to  study  for  Holy  Orders,  for  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Priesthood,  in  1633.  He  did  not, 
however,  consider  it  incumbent  upon  him  to  renounce 
his  connection  with  the  Lyric  Drama;  for,  in  1639, 
he  composed,  for  the  new  Teatro  di  San  Cassiano, 
an  Opera,  called  L'Ado7ie,  based  upon  a  libretto  by 
Paolo  Yendramino,  and  so  successful  was  the  piece, 
that  it  enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  *  run,'  from  the 
autumn  of  that  year  to  the  Carnival  of  1640.  In 
1641,  the  Teatro  di  San  Mose  was  opened  with  a 
revival  of  Arianna ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  the 
veteran  Composer,  now  seventy-three  years  old,  pro- 
duced two  new  Operas,  Le  Nozze  di  Enea  con  Lavinia, 
and  II  Ritorno  d'Ulisse  in  Patria,  the  libretti  for 
which  were  written  for  him,  by  Ciacomo  Bodoardo. 
JSTotwithstanding  his  great  age,  the  fire  of  his  genius 
still  burned  as  brightly  as  ever ;  and,  undeterred  by 
the  constant  demand  now  made  upon  his  physical 
powers,  he  composed,  in  1642,  yet  another  Opera, 
Incoronazione  di  Poppea,  on  a  libretto  by  Gianfran- 
cisco  Basinello.  This  was  his  last  effort.  He  died, 
in  1643,  universally  beloved ;  and  lies  buried,  in  the 
Chiesa  dei  Frari,  in  a  Chapel  on  the  Gospel  Side  of 
the  Choir,  beneath  a  famous  Altar-piece,  still  in 
existence,  painted  by  Luigi  Vivarini  in  conjunction 
with  Marco  Basaiti. 


A.D.  159 9- 1676.]  Francesco  Cavalli.  115 

Two  only  of  Monteverde's  Operas  have  been  pre- 
served—Or/eo,  printed,  as  we  have  said,  in  1609, 
and  again,  in  161 5, and  11  Bitorno  cV  TJlisse  in  P atria. 
The  last-named  work  is  known  only  through  a  ]\1S. 
copy,  transcribed  for  the  Empress  Eleonora,  in  a 
splendidly-bound  volume,  which,  though  long-for- 
gotten, was  discovered,  some  years  ago,  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  by  Ambros,  who  re- 
copied  the  entire  work,  in  order  the  more  effectually 
to  ensure  its  preservation  by  means  of  a  second 
example.  Of  the  printed  copy  of  the  Dramatic 
Interlude,  II  Comhattimento  di  Tancredi  e  Clorinda, 
we  have  already  spoken.  The  Lament  of  Ariadne 
survives,  in  the  guise  of  a  Pianto  della  Madonna,  in 
a  volume  of  Sacred  Music,  printed,  in  1623,  under 
the  title  of  Selva  morale  e  spirituale. 

Monteverde's  efforts  for  the  advancement  of 
Dramatic  Music  were  nobly  seconded  by  more  than 
one  talented  contemporary.  In  the  year  1637,  the 
Teatro  di  San  Cassiano — the  first  Opera  House  ever 
thrown  open  to  the  public — was  built,  at  Venice,  for 
Benedetto  Ferrari,  and  Francesco  Manelli,  the  first 
of  whom  wrote  the  libretti,  and  the  second,  the 
Music,  of  the  two  first  Operas  performed  within  its 
walls,  and  produced  many  others,  afterwards.  Pier- 
Francesco  Caletti  Bruni,  Monteverde's  favourite 
pupil — called,  in  the  old  A^enetian  dialect,  II  Checco 
Ca-Cavalli  {i.e.  little  Frank,  of  the  House  of  Cavalli), 

I  2 


ii6  Marc  Antonio  Cesii.  [a.d.  i 620-1 669. 

on  account  of  the  protection  extended  to  him  by  the 
noble  family  of  the  Cavalli,  but  now  universally 
known  as  Francesco  Cavalli,  fur  et  simple, — com- 
posed his  first  Opera,  Le  Nozze  de  Peleo,  e  di  Tetide, 
for  this  Theatre,  in  1639 ;  and  we  have  seen  that 
L'Adone  was  produced  there,  in  the  same  year.  A 
second  Opera  House,  called  II  Teatro  di  S.S. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo,  was  also  opened,  at  Venice,  in 
1639  ;  and  a  third— II  Teatro  di  San  Mose— in  1641. 
For  these  Theatres  new  Operas  were  produced,  in 
rapid  succession,  by  Marc  Antonio  Cesti — a  pupil  of 
Carissimi — Carlo  Pallavicino,  D.  Giovanni  Legrenzi, 
Antonio  Sartorio,  Pietro  and  Marc  Antonio  Ziani, 
Giulio  Strozzi,  C astro villari,  and  other  composers 
whose  works  are  now  lost.  Cavalli  followed  up  his 
first  success  by  producing,  between  the  years  1639 
and  1665,  no  less  than  thirty-four  Operas,  twenty  of 
which,  including  II  Giasone  [1649]  and  L'Erismena 
[1655],  are  preserved,  in  MS.,  in  the  Library  of 
S.  Mark,  at  Venice,  while  the  complete  autograph  of 
another — L'Egisto — will  be  found  in  the  Imperial 
Library,  at  Vienna.  Cesti' s  first  Opera — Orontea — 
retained  its  popularity  for  thirty  years.  The  com- 
plete Score  of  a  later  work — II  pomo  d'oro — is  pre- 
served at  Vienna ;  and  the  Abbe  Santini  formerly 
possessed  one  of  La  Dori ;  but  Oesare  amante,  Tito, 
Argene,  Genserico,  Argia,  and  La  schiava  fortunata, 
appear  to  be  hopelessly  lost.    Between  the  years 


A.D.  1 62 5- 1 690.]  D.  Giovanni  Legrenzi,  117 

1664  and  1684,  Legrenzi  composed  seventeen  Operas, 
the  most  successful  of  which  were  Achille  in  Scyro, 
[1664],  La  Divisione  del  Mondo,  [1675],  I  due  Gesari^ 
[1683],  and  Pertinace,  [1684].  The  works  of  the 
remaining  composers  of  the  period  are  of  less  his- 
torical importance,  and  have  only  reached  us  in  very 
fragmentary  forms. 

By  this  time,  Venice  boasted  no  less  than  eleven 
Opera  Houses,  all  of  which  attracted  crowded 
audiences.  In  Rome,  the  first  Opera  House,  known 
as  the  Torre  di  Nona,  was  opened,  in  1671,  with 
Cavalli's  Giasone ;  the  second,  called  La  Sala  de' 
Signori  Capranica,  was  inaugurated,  in  1679,  with 
Bernardo  Pasquini's  Bov^  e  Amove  e  Pieta  ;  while  a 
third  Theatre,  in  the  Palazzo  Alberti,  opened,  in 
1696,  with  Perti's  Penelope  la  casta.  From  these 
early  Art-centres,  the  new-born  passion  for  the 
Opera  spread  to  Naples,  to  Bologna,  to  Padua,  and 
other  Italian  cities ;  to  Vienna,  and  Dresden ;  and 
even  to  Paris,  where  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  who  travelled 
to  France,  in  the  suite  of  Maria  de'  Medici,  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  introduce  it,  in  1601,  fol- 
lowed by  an  equally  unfortunate  venture,  on  the  part 
of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  in  1645,  during  the  minority  of 
King  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  brilliant  triumph,  under 
Jean  Baptiste  LuUi,  after  the  emancipation  of  the 
youthful  Monarch  from  the  tyranny  of  his  avaricious 
Minister. 


ii8  Italian  Op 67' a  Houses,  [a.d.  1625-1690. 

Very  nearly  synclironous  with  Lulli's  success,  in 
France,  was  the  birth  of  Enghsh  Opera,  under  the 
leadership  of  Henry  Purcell.  But,  of  this,  we  shall 
treat  hereafter.  Having  reached  the  close  of  the 
period  which  may  be  fairly  called  the  infancy  of  the 
Opera,  we  must  quit  the  subject,  for  the  present,  to 
resume  the  thread  of  our  narrative,  in  a  future 
chapter,  with  the  history  of  its  adolescence. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


ox  THE  INYENTIOX  AND  EARLY  HISTOEY  OF  THE 
OEATOBIO. 

That  the  first  idea  of  the  Oratorio  was  suggested 
by  the  Mysteries  and  Miracle  Plays  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt. 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  these 
famous  representations  were  invented  for  the  vain 
amusement  of  a  gaping  crowd.  They  were  planned 
for  its  instruction.  The  good  Monks  who  organised 
the  performances  well  knew  the  class  of  spectators 
with  whom  they  had  to  deal.  It  was  easier  to  make 
the  great  scheme  of  Man's  Redemption  intelligible 
to  the  utterly  uncultured  mind,  by  means  of 
such  performances,  than  by  dint  of  any  possible 
amount  of  verbal  teaching.  And,  the  spirit  with 
which  they  entered  upon  this  task  was  a  deeply 
reverential  one.  If,  in  order  to  secure  the  rustic's 
attention,  they  thought  it  necessary  to  make  him 
laugh,  at  the  discomfiture  of  the  Evil  One,  they  took 
good  care  that  there  should  be  no  place  for  merri- 


I20         Miracle  Plays.  [i2th  &  i3Tn  Centuries. 

ment,  in  presence  of  the  sorrows  of  Our  Lady,  or 
S.  Mary  Magdalene.  And,  even  the  iintempered 
realism,  indispensable  as  a  means  of  impressing  the 
broad  facts  of  the  Scripture  Narrative  upon  a 
memory  wholly  untutored — even  this  ghastly  realism, 
as  some  would  call  it,  had  in  it  an  element  of  rude 
Poetry  which  has  not  received  just  judgment,  at  the 
hands,  either  of  moralists,  or  historians.  The  ^dldest 
extravagances,  the  mummeries  of  All  Fools'  Day,  the 
ceremonies  observed  at  the  election  of  the  Boy- 
Bishop  in  Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  a  hundred  others, 
all  had  a  meaning ;  and  a  very  good  meaning  it  was, 
in  many  cases  now  utterly  misconstrued.  And,  for 
every  Festival,  or  Procession,  or  Mystery,  there  was 
appropriate  Music  ;  the  best  that  could  be  procured 
at  the  time. 

One  of  the  most  famous  annual  celebrations  was 
the  Feast  of  Asses  (Lat.  Festum  asinorum ;  Fr.  Fete 
de  Vane)  observed,  with  great  magnificence,  during 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  particularly,  at 
Beauvais,  and  at  Sens.  The  celebration  took  place 
on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year — the  Feast  of  the 
Circumcision :  and  was  associated  with  numerous 
symbolical  observances,  addressed  to  capacities  of 
the  lowest  order,  but  wisely  calculated  to  make  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  people,  who 
looked  forward  to  this  annual  holiday  with  impatient 
delight.    The  great  event  of  the  day  was,  a  living 


I2TH  S:  ijTii  Centuries.]  T/ie  '  Fete  cie  Idne!  121 

representation  of  the  Flirjht  into  Egyj^jf.  For  the 
purpose  of  depicting  this,  the  most  beautiful  Ass 
that  could  be  found,  in  the  whole  country  side,  was 
covered  with  splendid  housings  of  silk  and  gold. 
A  young  ^Maiden,  selected  for  her  modest  beauty, 
was  seated  upon  it,  magnificently  dressed,  and  hold- 
ing in  her  aiTQS  a  beautiful  Child.  A  Procession 
was  then  formed.  An  old  man,  representing  S. 
Joseph,  conducted  the  animal,  and  its  symbolical 
burthen,  through  all  the  streets  of  the  city,  to  the 
sound  of  solemn  Hymns,  and  Canticles  ;  and  finally 
led  it  into  the  Cathedral,  and  up  to  the  steps  of  the 
High  Altar,  where  a  Priest  stood  ready  to  receive 
it,  and  to  greet  its  arrival,  by  intoning  the  famous 
Pilose  cle  Vane,  This  was  afterwards  taken  up  by 
the  Choir,  and  re-echoed  by  the  great  mass  of  the 
people,  who  had  learned  it  all  by  heart,  and  sang  it 
with  an  enthusiasm  which  knew  no  bounds.  We 
give  the  unisonous  Melody — a  really  fine  one — with 
one  strophe  of  the  original  Latin  words,  and  one  of 
the  French,  exactly  as  it  was  sung  in  the  12th  century, 
but  reduced  to  modern  notation.    (See  Fig.  26.) 

Miracle  plays  were  extremely  popular,  in  England, 
from  a  very  early  period.  Many  were  written, 
during  the  reign  of  King  Henry  II.,  by  a  Monk  of 
Canterbury,  who  died  in  1191 ;  and,  for  three  cen- 
turies, at  least,  the  demand  for  them  continued 
unabated.   That  they  would  be  subject  to  abuse,  was 


122  The  'Prose  de  rdnc'  [i2th  &  13TH  Centuries. 


Prosa  de  asino.    Prose  de  Vane  (12th  century). 


0  -  ri  -  en  -  tis  par  -  ti  -  bus,  Ad  -  ven  -  ta  -  vit  as  -  i  -  nus, 
Hez,  sire   as  -  nes,  car  chan-tez,       Belle     bouche  re-chig-nez, 


Z2: 


Pul-cher  et  for -tis  -  si  -  mus,  Sar  -  cin  -  is  ap  -  tis  -  si  -  nius. 
Voits  au-rez    dufoin   as  -  sez,     Et     de    Va-voine  a  plan-tez. 


Hez,  sire  as  -  nes,  hez  I 
.Hez,    sire    as  •  nes,  hez! 


Fi^.  26. 


naturally  to  be  expected.  But,  great  care  was  taken 
to  prevent  tlieir  corruption;  and  therefore  it  was, 
that,  during  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century,  they 
were  regularly  performed,  by  the  Choristers  of  S. 
Paul's,  under  direct  clerical  supervision.  One  of 
the  most  popular  subjects  was,  the  parable  of 
The  Prodigal  Son,  Another  was,  The  Creation; 
and  a  third,  The  Deluge.  We  also  hear  of  Abel 
and  Gain,  Abraham  and  his  son  Isaac,  Samson, 
The  Conversion  of  S.  Paul,  and  other  Scripture 
Histories,  varied,  sometimes,  by  narratives  taken 
from  the  Golden  Legend,  or  other  versions  of  The 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  But,  the  theme  most  frequently 
selected,  and,  naturally,  that  upon  which  the  Clergy 
chiefly  depended,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  was. 
The  Passion  of  Our  Lord.  In  all  the  large  cities 
of  Europe,  this  was  annually  enacted,  during  Holy 


I2TH  &  13TH  Centuries.]  The  '  Passion  Play !  123 

Week,  with  great  solemnity ;  and  few  of  our  readers 
will  need  to  be  reminded  of  its  periodical  presenta- 
tion, at  Oberammergau,  even  now.  The  music 
w^ritten  for  it,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  was  peculiarly 
solemn  ;  not  at  all  unlike  true  Plain  Chaunt.  And 
the  most  impressive  Melodies  were  always  those 
adapted  to  the  sorrows  of  Our  Lady.  A  MS.  of 
the  14th  century,  wi^itten  at  the  Abbey  of  Origny 
Saint  Benoit,  but  now  transferred  to  the  Librarv  at 
S.  Quentin,  contains  a  more  than  ordinarily  beautiful 
Querimonia,  of  this  kind,  called  Les  trois  Maries. 


Les  trois  Maries  (14tli  century). 

^    Q  ^  

r>    ^                 ^     ^    0  Q— r?-<^ 

Nous  a 

-  -  vons  per  - 

du   nos  -  tre  con  -  fort  Jlies  -  um  Clirist-um 

^  Q  ^      ^      Q     oir?  ^-77-- 

— ^—>n — — 

ties  tout  plain  de  douceur.  II  es-toit  biaus  et  plain  de  bon-ne    a  -  mour 


°i  0  <^  0  0  0 

^     0  ^ 

he  las      mo  -  ut  nous    a  -  moit  livr  -  ais. 


Fig.  27. 

There  can  be  no  possible  doubt,  as  we  have  already 
said,  that  these  rude,  but  neither  unpoetical,  nor 
irreverent  performances,  formed  the  basis  upon  which 
the  grand  Composition  now  called  the  Oratorio  was 
founded.  But,  the  birthplace  of  this  beautiful  Art- 
form,  like  that  of  its  twin  sister,  the  Opera,  was  Italy. 

"We  say,  its  'twin  sister,'  because,  in  the  self- 
same year  that  witnessed  the  production  of  Peri's 


124 


The  L  aiidisi i.  [ a .  d  .  1 3 1 6 . 


Euridice,  at  Florence,  the  first  Oratorio  was  per- 
formed, at  Rome,  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  in 
Vallicella,  then  recently  built  by  S.  Philip  Neri,  the 
Founder  of  the  Congregation  of  Oratorians.  S. 
Philip,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken  as  the 
friend  of  Palestrina,  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  power 
of  Sacred  Music,  and  its  utility  as  a  means  of  ex- 
citing healthy  devotional  feeling.  For  the  purpose 
of  encouraging  a  general  love  for  it,  he  warmly 
supported  the  Guild  or  Brotherhood  called  the 
Laudisti,  which,  first  instituted,  at  Florence,  in  the 
year  1316,  spread,  afterwards,  over  the  whole  of 
Italy,  and  was  found  in  a  flourishing  condition,  by 
Dr.  Burney,  in  1770.  On  certain  solemn  occasions, 
the  Laudisti  paraded  the  streets,  singing  Hymns  of 
a  melodious  character,  called  Laudi  spirituali,  one  of 
which — Alia  Trinita  beata — is  well  known  in  Eng- 
land, as  a  popular  Hymn  Tune.  A  large  collection 
of  these  Melodies  was  made,  by  Animuccia,  for  S. 
Philip,  who  caused  them  to  be  sung,  after  the  regular 
Office,  both  in  his  new  Church,  and  in  the  great 
Oratory  attached  to  it.  It  was,  most  probably,  in 
this  part  of  the  building  that  the  first  Oratorio 
was  performed,  in  the  month  of  February,  1600  ; 
and  it  is  certain,  that,  from  it,  the  form  of  compo- 
sition now  known  as  the  Oratorio  derived  its  name.^ 

^  The  original  Oratory  is  still  standing ;  and  Oratorios  are  still 
performed  in  it — or,  at  least,  were,  as  late  as  the  year  1865. 


A.D.  1600.]         The  First  Oratorio.  125 

The  piece  in  question  was  composed  by  Emilio 
del  Cavaliere,  to  the  text  of  a  Sacred  Drama, 
written  for  him  by  Laura  Guidiccione.  Its  title 
was,  La  Rajppresentazione  delV  Anima,  e  del  Gorpo^ 
('The  Representation  o£  the  Soul,  and  of  the  Body.') 
Its  subject,  as  will  be  readily  understood,  was  alle- 
gorical ;  and  the  style  of  its  Music  was  that  of  the 
Monodic  School,  in  its  purest  form — the  stile  rap- 
presentativo,  so  successfully  cultivated,  in  Florence, 
at  the  famous  re-unions  at  the  palace  of  the  Conte 
di  Yernio — a  style,  wholly  declamatory,  and  recog- 
nising no  distinction  whatever  between  Eecitative, 
and  Air.  So  strongly-marked,  indeed,  is  this  last 
peculiar  feature,  that  Emilio  del  Cavaliere  has,  many 
times,  been  credited  with  the  invention  of  Eecitative. 
But,  the  same  feature  is  equally  conspicuous  in 
Peri's  Euridice ;  and  many  learned  critics  have,  with 
equal  show  of  justice,  attributed  the  invention  to 
him.  It  is  impossible,  now,  to  decide  the  point ; 
for  the  earliest  works  of  both  composers  are  lost. 
And,  after  all,  Yincenzo  Galilei,  and  Giulio  Caccini, 
have  a  claim  to  the  honour,  little  less  strong  than 
that  of  their  two  more  celebrated  associates.  The 
probability  is,  that  Recitative  was  the  joint  inven- 
tion of  the  entire  brotherhood  ;  coEeval,  and  co- 
ordinates with  Monodia  itself.  And,  here,  we  must 
leave  the  question ;  for  it  seems  impossible  that  it 
can  ever  be  definitely  settled,  in  face  of  the  ex- 


126  The  First  Oratorio.        [a.d.  1600. 

traordinary  similarity  between  the  works  of  tlie  first 
Dramatic  Composers.  It  is  true,  that  Caccini,  being 
himself  an  accomplished  singer,  wrote  more  florid 
passages  for  the  voice  than  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries  :  but,  in  all  other  respects,  the  productions 
of  the  period  resemble  each  other  exactly,  as  a 
comparison  between  the  following  extract  from 
Emilio  del  Cavaliere's  Oratorio,  and  that  from  Peri's 
Eicridice,  given  on  page  106,  will  suflSciently  show. 


Emilio  del  Cavaliere, 
From  La  Rappresentazione  delV  Anima,  e  del  Corpo  (1600). 


— i  ^ — =r- 

1  /  > — — — \  i 

Us  - 

ci  -  te  de   la  fos 

-  -  sa 

ce  -  ne  -  ri  spar-  si  ed 

^  

^  =^ —  h 

rJ     rJ   \    cJ  rJ 

 !  1 — 

— t —  r 

/7N 

 ^ 

1  1  1 — ' 

 ,  n  1 — 

OS  -  sa 

gor   -    -  - 

k 

*  t 

— \ 

-   -   -  te 

1 

I'ani 

-  me  an  - 

 1^ 

^-ri  !— 

— 1  -1 

>  

11  10  ^ 



1  ^ 

~A  S — 

s  r> 

^     o  o 

-    CO    -  ra 

pren  -  dete  i 

^4  

cor  - 

-A 

pi 

bor' 

ho  - 

ra. 

&C. 

 1  , 

 (S>  ^ — 



 =]: 

— 1  1 

5  6 

1110#  %^ 

Fig.  28. 

The  treatment  of  the  piece  was  dramatic,  through- 
out, though  more  after  the  manner  of  the  early 
Miracle  Plays  than  that  of  Classical  Tragedy.  It 


A.D.  1600.]         The  First  Oraforio.  127 

was  performed  upon  a  stage,  erected  for  the  purpose, 
with  scenery,  dresses,  decorations,  and  all  the  ap- 
pliances proper  to  the  regular  Drama,  not  excepting 
dancing  itself.  The  composer  died,  some  months 
before  the  first  performance  took  place  ;  but  every- 
thing was  arranged  in  exact  accordance  with  his 
instructions,  which,  fortunately  for  the  history  of 
Art,  are  carefully  set  forth  in  the  preface  to  the 
work,  printed  in  a  complete  form,  under  the  super- 
vision of  Alessandro  Guidetti,  in  1600.-  From  this, 
we  learn  that  the  principal  characters  were.  The 
Soul,  (L'Anima),  The  Body,  (II  Corpo),  Time,  (II 
Tempo),  Life,  (La  Yita),  The  World,  (II  Mondo), 
Pleasure,  (II  Piacere),  The  Intellect,  (L'  Intelletto), 
and  some  others  of  minor  importance.  The  "World, 
and  Life,  magnificently  dressed  when  they  first 
appeared  upon  the  scene,  ended  by  losing  all  their 
splendour,  and  dwindling  into  skeletons  :  and  minute 
iastructions  were  given,  as  to  the  exact  places  in 
which  the  Body  was  to  cast  away  his  golden  chain, 
and  the  feathers  from  his  hat.  The  Orchestra,  con- 
sisting of  a  Double  Lyre,  a  Harpsichord,  a  Large 
Lute,  and  two  Flutes,  was  hidden  from  view,  like 
that  in  the  new  Theatre  at  Bayreuth :  but,  the 
principal  performers  held  musical  instruments  in 
their  hands,  and  played  them,  upon  the  stage,  as 

^  The  work  is  of  extreme  rarity  and  value.  Xo  copy  is  known 
to  exist  in  any  English  library. 


128 


The  First  Oratorio. 


[a.d.  1600. 


Tamino  and  Papageno  play  their  Flute,  and  Bells, 
in  II  Flauto  magico.  All  this  savours  strongly  of 
the  mediaeval  Mystery,  which  had  long  been  as 
popular,  in  Italy,  as  in  France,  England,  or  Germany: 
but,  in  the  Mystery,  the  dialogue  was  spoken,  while, 
in  the  Oratorio,  it  was  recited  to  musical  notes  ; 
and,  herein  lay  the  broad  distinction  between  the 
two.  The  Oratorio,  in  fact,  as  invented  by  Emilio 
del  Cavaliere,  was  neither  more,  nor  less,  than  an 
Opera,  based  upon  a  sacred  subject;  and,  in  Italy, 
it  never  assumed  any  other  form  than  this.  The 
style  of  its  music  changed,  with  the  fashion  of  the 
time.  But  it  was  a  sacred  Opera,  from  first  to 
last. 

Emilio  del  Cavaliere' s  attempt  was  not  very  en- 
thusiastically followed  up  ;  probably,  by  reason  of 
the  greater  attractions  of  the  Secular  Drama.  In 
1622,  Johannes  Hieronymus  Kapsberger,  a  German, 
resident  in  Rome,  composed,  in  honour  of  the 
Canonisation  of  S.  Ignatius  Loyola,  an  Oratorio,  or 
Sacred  Drama,  called  Apotheosis,  seu  Consecratio 
S.S.  Ignatii  et  Francisci  Xaverii,  which  was  per- 
formed, at  the  Collegio  Romano,  with  a  splendour 
of  which  the  music  was  very  far  from  worthy;  and, 
for  the  same  occasion,  Yittorio  Loreto  wrote  a  second 
Oratorio,  the  almost  incredibly  magnificent  perfor- 
mance of  which  attracted  so  great  a  concourse  of 
spectators,  that  the  Cardinals  were  pushed  from 


A.D.  1622.]     Kapsberger,     V.  Loreto. 


129 


their  seats  by  the  crowd.  Ka,psberger's  Oratorio 
was  printed ;  but  Loreto 's  is  known  only  by  the 
description  given  in  the  Epistolce  ad  diversos  of 
Erythr^us,  (Lib.  IV.  Ep.  37),  from  which  we  learn, 
that  the  poetry  was  very  poor,  but  the  music, 
excellent. 

In  1627,  Michelagnolo  Capellini  wrote,  II  Lamento 
di  S.  Maria  Vergine,  Stefano  Landi  produced  his 
S.  Alessio,  in  1634.  Michel  Angelo  Rossi  composed 
a  Sacred  Drama,  called  Erminio  sul  Giordano,  in 
1637.  And,  in  1648,  Yittorio  Loreto  wrote  an 
Oratorio,  called  II  Sagrifizio  d'  Abramo.  But  more 
successful  than  all  these  longer  compositions,  was 
Domenico  Mazzocchi's  Querimonia  di  8,  Maria 
Maddelena,  which  rivalled  in  popularity  Monte verde's 
Lamento  d'  Arianna. 

It  was  not  until  some  years  after  the  production 
of  these  early  works  that  the  Oratorio  emerged, 
from  its  infant  condition,  into  a  nobler  one,  which 
we  shall  duly  consider,  at  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
our  history. 


K 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  OENTURT. 

Instrumental  Music,  as  practised  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  showed  but  little  tendency  to  advance 
towards  even  a  moderate  degree  of  perfection. 
While  Vocal  Harmony,  thanks  to  the  untiring  zeal 
of  its  Monastic  teachers,  was  daily  developing  new 
and  unexpected  beauties,  the  Instrumental  Music, 
played,  even  for  the  amusement  of  Princes,  was  of 
more  than  rustic  simplicity,  and  performed  upon 
Instruments  of  the  rudest  possible  construction. 
Among  these  early  Instruments  we  hear  of  the 
Harp,  the  Trumpet,  the  Sackbut  (parent  of  the 
Trombone),  the ,  Flute,  the  Psaltery,  and  many 
others,  of  Egyptian,  Greek,  or  Hebrew  origin, 
together  with  a  multitude  of  forms  which  were 
clearly  invented  in  countries  unknown  to  classic 
lore.  First  among  them  stand  Instruments  of  the 
Violin  tribe,  the  descent  of  which  is  clearly  traceable 
to  the  primitive  Behec,  known  to  us  only  through 


1 3TH  Century.]  Primitive  Musical  Instruments,   1 3  [ 

the  numerous  representations  still  extant  in  medias- 
val  paintings,  and  illuminations,  and  tlie  sculptured 
ornaments  of  our  Cathedrals,  no  real  specimen 
being  now  in  existence.  Closely  allied  to  this  were, 
the  early  German  Geige,  the  English  Fiihele  (or 
Fiddle),  the  French  Vielle,  and  the  Cambrian  Gruth, 
Groiuth,  or  Groivd,  The  Bote,  (Ital.  Botta),  long 
supposed  to  be  a  similar  Instrument,  or,  perhaps,  a 
primitive  Hurdy-gurdy,  is  now  believed  to  have  been 
a  northern  form  of  the  Psaltery,  or  Dulcimer.  The 
Bibible,  mentioned  by  Chaucer,  in  the  Mtllere's  Tale, 
appears  to  have  been  a  small  Behec,  In  the  same 
Poem,  we  read  of  the  Giterne  (or  Cithern),  and,  in 
the  Pardonnere^s  Tale,  mention  is  made  of  the  Lute. 

Many  of  these  Instruments  were  used  by  the 
Minstrels,  and  Jongleurs,  who  wrought  a  notable 
improvement  in  Instrumental  Music,  which  they 
cultivated  with  little  less  enthusiasm  than  that 
shown  by  the  Monks  for  Vocal  Composition.  But, 
it  was  not  until  the  invention  of  the  Monodio  Style 
that  Instrumental  Accompaniments  received  the 
attention  which  eventually  rendered  them  worthy 
of  association  with  the  Vocal  Music  of  the  period. 

At  the  Palace  of  Giovanni  Bardi,  in  Florence, 
Giulio  Caccini  sang  his  Canzonets  to  the  accom- 
paniment of   a  Teorbo,  or   Archilkito,  played  by 
Bardilla.^     Peri's     Euridice^    was  accompanied, 
'  See  p.  103.  2  ^ 

K  2 


132 


Primitive  Orchestras.        [a.d.  1600. 


behind  the  scenes,  by  a  Clavicembalo  (or  Harpsi- 
chord), a  Chitaro7ie,  (or  Lute  with  a  double  neck), 
a  .LtV(X  grande,  (or  F^oZ(2      gamha),  and  a  Teorbo,  or 
Archiliuto,  (i.e.  an  Arch  Lute),  or  Lute  of  the  largest 
size ;  while,  on  the  stage,  Tirsi,  one  of  the  principal 
characters,  played  a  Triflauto,  or  Triple  Flute.  The 
concealed  Orchestra  used  at  the  great  performance 
of  Emilio  del  Oavalieri's  Ba^ppresentazione  delV  anima 
e  del  corpo^  consisted  of  a  Clavicembalo,  a  Lira 
doppia,  a  Chitarone,  and  two  Flauti,  '  or,  preferably, 
two  antique  Tibice with  two  Violini,  playing,  at 
pleasure,  in  unison  with  the  voice.  But  Monteverde, 
in  his  famous  Orfeo,^  scorned    these  diminutive 
Orchestras,  which  he  replaced  by  a  collection  of  no 
less  than  thirty-six  Instruments,  viz. :  two  Gravi- 
cembani,  two  Contrabassi  de  Viola,  ten   Viole  da 
brazzo,  one  Arpa  doppia,  two  Violini  piccoli  alia 
Francese,  two  Chitaroni,  two  Organi  di  legno,  three 
Bassi  da  gamba,  four  Tromboni,  one  Beg  ale,  two 
Cornetti,  one  Flautino  alia  vigesima  seconda,  one 
Clarino,  and  three  Trombe  sordine. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  Instrumental 
Music,  in  Germany,  during  the  period  of  its  infancy, 
is  chiefly  derived  from  information  contained  in  four 
books,  of  extreme  rarity — viz. :  Sebastian  Yirdung's 
Musica  getuscht  und  ausgezogen  [Basle.  1511.  obi. 
4to] ;  Martin  Agricola's  Musica  instrumentalis 
'  See  p.  125.  See  p.  108. 


A. D .  1 5  7 1  - 1 6  2 1 .]  A/ ichcBl  PrcEtorius.  133 

deudscli,  [Wittemberg.  1529/  obi.  4to]  ;  Musurgia 
seu  irraxis  musicce,  by  OtLimar  Nachtigal,  or  Naclit- 
gall — Lot.  Ottomarus  Luscinius — [Strasburg.  1536, 
and  1542.]  aucl  tlie  famous  Syntagma  musicum  of 
Miclisel  Prcetoriiis,  [Wittemberg,  and  Wolfenbiittel. 
1615,  1618,  1619,  1620.  4to.  3  vols,  with  an 
Appendix  containing  42  plates.] 

It  would  be  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  his- 
torical value  of  tins  last-named  work,  oE  which  the 
only  copies  known  to  exist,  in  this  country,  are 
those  in  the  libraries  of  the  Rev.  Sir  F.  A.  Gore 
Oaseley,  and  Mr.  Alfred  Littleton.  Amongst  its 
most  interesting  features  are,  the  plates  of  the 
Musical  Instruments  in  use  at  the  time  it  was 
written,  accompanied  by  detailed  descriptions,  in- 
cluding the  mention  of  many,  which,  long  before 
the  time  of  PraBtorius,  were  known  only  as  antique 
curiosities.  The  plates  represent  Trombones,  of 
four  different  sizes ;  the  various  forms  of  Trumpets, 
and  Horns ;  Cornets ;  the  Flute  a  bee,  and  Flauto 
traversa;  Hautboys,  both  Treble,  and  Bass — under 
their  old  German  names,  Pommer,  Bass-Pommer, 
Schalmey,  and  Bombardon ;  Bassoons,  and  Dolcians ; 
Double  Bassoons ;  Sordoni,  and  Doppioni  ;  Bachetten  ; 
several  different  kinds  of  Krumhorn,  or  Lituiis ;  the 
Corna-rause,  or  Musette ;  the  Bassanello ;  the  Schrey- 

*  ^Ve  have  seen  a  rare  copy  of  this  work,  containing  a  preface, 
dated  'Magdeburg,  1528.' 


134 


'  Syntagma  musicuml  [a.d.  i  6 1 5-1 620 


eiyfeiffe  ;  tlie  SacJcpfeiffe,  or  Bagpipes ;  and  otTier 
Wind-instruments,  too  numerous  to  mention.  Then 
follow  the  Stringed  Instruments,  played  with  the 
Bow — the  great  Violin  tribe,  including  the  various 
kinds  of  Viol  da  gamha,  Viol  hastarda,  and  Violone, 
or  Double-Bass,  all  played  between  the  knees ;  and 
the  Viola  da  hraccia,  the  Violino  da  hraccia,  the 
Tenor  Violino  da  hraccia,  and  the  Violetta  picciola, 
played  upon  the  arm.  The  next  class  includes  the 
less  perfect  Instruments,  in  which  the  strings  are 
plucked  by  the  fingers,  or  played  with  a  Plectrum  ; 
as,  the  Harp,  Lute,  Theorbo,  Mandolin,  Lyre,  and 
Guitar.  The  last  division  embraces  the  keyed  In- 
struments ;  the  Harpsichord — known  as  the  Glavi- 
cymbalum,  Gravicembalo,  or,  more  simply,  the  Gem- 
balo ;  the  Spinet — called,  in  England,  the  Virginalls; 
the  Glavicytherium,  or  Glavichord;  the  Glaviorganum; 
the  Arpichordum ;  a  strange  compound  of  the  Harp- 
sichord and  Viol,  called  the  Niirembergisch  Geigen- 
tuerch,  and,  last  of  all,  the  Organ,  the  various 
developments  of  which  are  traced,  from  the  primi- 
tive Begall,  and  Positif,  to  the  largest  Instruments 
known  at  the  beginning  of  the  17  th  century. 

It  would  be  manifestly  impossible  for  us  to  speak, 
in  detail,  of  one  tithe  of  the  Instruments  here 
enumerated;  but,  a  few  words  concerning  the  early 
history  of  the  principal  Stringed  and  Keyed  Instru- 
ments are  indispensable  to  the  clear  understanding 
of  our  subject. 


I  6th  Century.]  Origin  of  the  Violin. 


135 


We  liave  spoken  of  the  Behec,  as  the  true  pro- 
genitor of  the  Violin.  In  illuminated  MSS.  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  this  is  represented  as 
not  unlike  the  Mandoline  in  form,  with  trefoil 
'  Sound'holes,'  and  a  carved  head  in  the  place  of  ^ 
the  modern  '  Scroll,'  fitted  with  three  strings,  and 
played  with  a  Bow  of  somewhat  rounded  form  ; 
thus  showing  the  origin  of  all  the  principal  features 
which  were  brought  to  so  high  a  state  of  perfection, 
between  the  closing  decads  of  the  17th  century,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  18th,  by  makers  whose  work 
has  never  since  been  rivalled.  Foremost  among 
these  great  Artists — for  we  can  call  them  by  no  less 
honourable  a  name — stand  the  members  of  the  cele- 
brated Amati  family ;  the  founders  of  the  '  Cremona 
School,'  from  which  so  many  fine  old  Italian  Violins 
have  been  indiscriminately  called,  by  the  uninitiated, 
*  Cremonas.'  The  leading  spirit  of  the  house  was 
Andrea  Amati  [1520 — 1577],  whose  improvements 
upon  the  Stringed  Instruments  made,  at  Brescia,  by 
Maggini,  and  Gaspar  da  Salo,  the  most  celebrated 
Artists  of  the  still  older  '  Brescian  School,'  prepared 
the  way  for  much  of  the  perfection  that  was  so 
soon  to  follow.  His  brother,  the  elder  Nicole,  con- 
fined his  attention  chiefly  to  the  Bass  Viol.  Antonio 
[1565 — 1620]^  and  Geronimo,  Andrea's  two  sons, 
carried  out  their  father's  ideas  with  enlightenment, 

*  It  is  necessary  to  state  that  no  two  historians  agree  on  the 
subject  of  these  dates. 


136       N'.Amati,  J ,  Gttarnerius,  [a.d.  1 596-1 745. 

and  vigour ;  but,  tlie  greatest  genius  of  all  was 
Geronimo's  son,  the  second  Nicolo,  [1596 — 1684], 
whose  best  works  are  simply  priceless.  Under  his 
son — another  Geronimo — the  celebrity  of  the  house 
declined,  never  to  rise  again.  Another  celebrated 
family  of  Cremonese  Artists,  was  that  of  the  Guar- 
nieri.  The  founder  of  the  house,  Andreas  Guarne- 
rius,  whose  Instruments  bear  dates  from  1650,  to 
1695,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicolo  Amati.  His  sons, 
Joseph — distinguished  as  Films  Andrece — [Dating 
between  1690,  and  1730],  and  the  elder  Peter, 
[Dating  from  1690,  to  1735],  were  excellent  makers, 
as  was  also  Joseph's  son,  the  younger  Peter, 
[Dating  from  1780,  to  1755],  who  worked  chiefly 
at  Venice.  But,  the  greatest  of  the  family  was 
another  Joseph,  surnamed  Del  Gesu,  [Nat,  1683. 
Ob.  1745]  ;  a  nephew  of  the  venerable  Andreas,  and 
so  excellent  a  maker,  that  one  of  his  finest  Violins 
can  scarcely  be  bought,  at  the  present  day,  for  less 
than  four  or  five  hundred  guineas.  Another  famous 
Cremonese  maker — the  last  great  artist  of  the 
School — was  Antonio  Stradivari,  [1649 — 1737], 
Nicolo  Amati' s  most  famous  pupil,  whose  Instru- 
ments yield  neither  to  those  of  Nicolo  Amati,  nor 
those  of  Joseph  Guarnerius.  The  value  of  a  fine 
Stradivari,  of  the  finest  period — circal698 — 1728 — as 
at  present  estimated,  is  about  five  hundred  guineas. 
Probably  no  two  finer  specimens  exist  than  those 


A. D.  1 649- 1737.]  A.  Stradivari,  y .  Stainer,        1 3 7 

now  in  the  possession  of  Herr  Joachim,  and  always 
nsed  by  him  in  his  pubhc  performances.  The  sub- 
joined engraving  shows  the  front  and  side  vievf 
of  an  Instrument  of  this  splendid  period. 


Fig.  29. 


Two  views  of  a  Stradivari  Violin,  of  the  best  period.    [Dated  1708.] 

The  greatest  of  the  German  Violin-makers  was 
undoubtedly  Jacob  Stainer,  of  Absam,  near  Ins- 
bruck,  in  the  Tyrol,  [1621—1683].  Less  powerful 
than  those  by  the  great  Italian  makers,  his  Instru- 
ments are  of  infinite  sweetness,  and  beautifully 
finished.  Many  of  his  Violins  have  a  carved  lion's 
head  in  place  of  the  usual  Scroll — a  characteristic, 
which,  of  course,  has  been  extensively  copied  for 
purposes  of  forgery. 

Our  English  Violin-makers,  of  the  so-called 
'  London  School,'  were  very  numerous  ;  and  many 


138  English  Violins,  [a.d.  i 685-1 770. 

of  their  quaint  Instruments  are  still  deservedly 
prized.  Among  tlie  greatest  of  them  are  ranked, 
Edward  Pamphilon,  [circa  1685],  of  Old  London 
Bridge;  Peter  Wamsley,  [circa  1710—1730],  of  tlie 
Golden  Harp,  in  Piccadilly;  William  Forster, 
[1739—1808],  of  S.  Martin's  Lane;  Benjamin 
Banks,  [1750 — 1795],  who  ended  his  career  at 
Salisbury;  and  Richard  Duke,  [circa  1770],  of 
Holborn,  whose  reputation  is  still  high  enough  to 
prompt  the  manufacture  of  innumerable  spurious 
Instruments,  bearing  his  forged  name. 

Many  of  these  early  makers  made  Yiols,  of  all 
kinds,  as  well  as  Violins,  Violas,  Violoncellos,  and 
Double-Basses.  Of  these,  the  Instruments  most 
popular,  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  were, 
the  Treble,  Mean,  and  Bass  Viols,  the  Violetta,  the 
Viol  da  gamba — a  favourite  Instrument,  in  England, 
as  late  as  the  reign  of  King  Charles  II. — and  the 
beautiful  Viol  d'  amore,  used  by  Handel,  in  some  of 
his  early  works,  and  even,  in  our  own  day,  by 
Meyerbeer,  who  introduces  it,  with  charming  effect, 
in  the  accompaniment  of  an  Air  in  the  First  Act  of 
Les  Huguenots.  It  was  not  until  the  second  half  of 
the  17th  century  that  general  acceptance  was  given 
to  the  principle,  now  universally  adopted,  of  using, 
as  the  basis  of  the  grand  Orchestra,  two  Violins,  in 
combination  with  a  Viola,  a  Violoncello,  and  a 
Contra-Basso. 


A.D.  1404.]    Origin  of  the  HarpsicJiord,  139 

No  less  clear  is  the  pedigree  of  the  Harpsichord ' 
than  that  of  the  Violin.  As  the  one  is  descended, 
in  a  direct  line,  from  the  Eebec,  so  is  the  other  from 
the  still  more  ancient  Psaltery — a  shallow  box, 
covered  with  a  Sound-board,  and  fitted  with  metal 
strings,  which  were  plucked  with  a  Plectrum,  made 
of  ivory,  metal,  or  quill,  or,  less  frequently,  with  the 
tips  of  the  fingers.  In  applying  this  principle  to 
Keyed  Instruments,  all  that  was  necessary  was,  to 
furnish  each  key  with  a  separate  quill,  appended  to 
an  upright  lever,  called  a  Jack,  which,  when  the 
key  was  pressed  with  the  finger,  plucked  the  strings 
in  passing.  This  form  of  construction  was  first 
applied  to  the  Virginal,  or  Virginalls ;  an  Instru- 
ment which  in  the  earliest  known  examples,  was 
little  more  than  a  keyed  Psaltery,  though  it  even- 
tually developed  into  the  Spinet,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  presently.  It  is  impossible  to  say  when,  or 
by  whom,  the  new  principle  was  applied  to  the 
Harpsichord.  The  Clavicymhalum  is  mentioned,  in 
the  rules  of  the  German  Minnesingers,  in  1404 :  but 
it  seems  certain  that  the  invention  originated  in 
Italy.  The  oldest  Harpsichord  now  known  to 
exist  is  preserved  in  the  splendid  collection  at  South 
Kensington;  and  is  inscribed,  Hieronymus  Bono- 

'  Ital.  Clavicembalo;  Gravicemhalo ;  Cembalo;  ArjJicordo. 
Germ.  Glavicymbel ;  Flilgel.  Fr.  Clavecin.  Eng.  Harpsichord. 
*  Harpsichon '  (Pepys). 


I40  Andreas  Rue kers,  [a.d.  15  79-1661. 

niensis  faciebat  Romas  MDXXI.  But,  no  Italian 
maker  rivalled  the  beautiful  Harpsichords  manu- 
factured by  the  Euckers  family,  at  Antwerp.  Hans 
Ruckers,  the  head  of  the  house,  is  said  to  have  first 
made  Double  Harpsichords — i.e.  Instruments  with 
two  Keyboards,  placed  one  above  the  other,  like 
those  of  an  Organ,  and  fitted  with  an  Octave  Stop, 
connected  with  a  shortened  set  of  strings.  Hans, 
and  his  four  song,  Francis,  Hans  the  younger, 
Andreas,  and  Anthony,  enjoyed  an  European  repu- 
tation, between  the  years  1579,  and  1661,  and  even 
later.  In  England,  the  best  Harpsichord  makers 
were  Burkhard  Tschudi,  (or  Shudi),  who  first  esta- 
blished the  house  of  'John  Broadwood  and  Sons,' 
on  the  present  premises,  No.  33  Great  Pulteney 
Street,  Golden  Square,  in  1732 ;  and  Jacob  Kirch- 
mann,  the  founder  of  the  present  house  of  Kirk- 
man  and  Sons.  The  Instruments  made  by  these 
two  enlightened  mechanists — fellow-apprentices  of  a 
Flemish  maker,  named  Tabel — were  among  the  last 
used  in  this  country,  and  exhibited  many  modern 
improvements,  the  latest  of  which  was,  the  Venetian 
Swell,  invented  by  Shudi,  in  1769.  The  Grand 
Pianoforte  is  said  to  have  been  first  publicly  used, 
in  preference  to  the  Harpsichord,  at  the  perform- 
ance of  the  King's  Birtlidonj  Ode,  on  the  4th  of 
June,  1795.  Our  illustration  represents  a  magnifi- 
cent Double  Harpsichord,  presented   by  Messrs. 


A. D.  1 6 5  T .]      Handers  Harpsichoi^d.  1 4 1 

Broadwood  and  Sons  to  tlie  South  Kensington 
Museum,  bearing  the  inscription  Andreas  Ruckers 
ME  FECIT  Antverpia3  1651,  and  said  to  have  been 
the  property  of  George  Frederic  Handel,  by  whom 
it  was  bequeathed  to  Christopher  Smith. 


Fig, 30 

Handel's  Harpsichord,  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.    [Dated  1651.] 


The  Spinet,^  already  mentioned,  under  its  early 
name  of  Virginal,  as  a  precursor  of  the  Harpsi- 
chord, was  used  as  a  substitute  for  it,  until  a 
very  late  epoch  in  the  history  of  both.    In  the 

'  Ital.  Spinetta.   Fr.  Epinette.    Old  Eng.  A  paire  of  Virginalles. 


142 


The  spinet,     [a.d.  i  523-1668. 


period  of  its  perfection,  it  bore  exactly  the  same 
relation  to  the  Harpsichord  that  the  old-fashioned 
Square  Pianoforte  bore  to  the  Grand  Pianoforte  of 
modern  times.  Pepys  [April  4, 1668.]  tells  ns  that 
he  bought  one,  instead  of  a  '  Harpsichon,'  because 
it  '  takes  up  less  room.'  The  oldest  known  example 
is  a  Spinet,  by  Franceso  di  Portalupis,  dated 
'  Verona,  1523,'  and  now  preserved  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Conservatoire,  at  Paris.  The  oldest  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum  is  by  Annibale  Rosso,  of 
Milan,  dated,  1555.  Beautiful  Spinets  were  made,  at 
Antwerp,  by  the  Ruckers  family ;  but,  some  of  the 
finest  known  examples  are  of  English  manufacture. 
Some  of  those  made  by  John  and  Thomas  Hitch- 
cock, during  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  II.,  pos- 
sess a  compass  of  five  complete  octaves,  from  G  to 
G ;  a  range  unequalled  in  Continental  Instruments. 


Fig.  31. 

Spinet,  by  Thomas  Hitchcock.    {Circa  1645.] 


Another   equally   celebrated   name    was   that  of 


A.D.  1523-1668.]      The  Spinet.  143 

Charles  Haward,  who  made  the  Spinet  chosen  by 
Pepys.  The  subjoined  illustration  represents  a 
beautiful  Spinet,  by  Charles  Haward,  the  Keyboard 
of  which  is  arranged  in  the  Grerman  fashion,  with 
Naturals  of  snake-wood,  nearly  black,  and  Sharps  of 
ivory.  The  compass  includes  four  octaves  and  one 
note,  from  B,  to  C. 


Fig.  32. 

Spinet,  by  Charles  Haward.    ICirca.  1668.] 


Another  form  of  Keyed  Instrument,  very  popu- 
lar during  the  Middle  Ages,  was  the  Clavichord; 
called,  in  France,  the  Manichord,  and  best  known, 
in  Germany,  under  the  generic  name  of  Clavier. 
The  origin  of  this  has  been  sometimes  traced  back 
to  the  Dulcimer,  or  Hackbrett,  (a  kind  of  Psaltery 
like  that  carried  by  the  Skeleton  in  the  Danse  Mac- 
cabre,  played  by  two  small  hammers,  instead  of  a 


144 


The  Clavichord.   [17TH  Century. 


plectrum) :  and  sometimes — perhaps  more  clearly 
— to  the  Monochord,  with  a  movable  bridge.  It 
partakes,  in  fact,  of  the  character  of  both  those 
Instruments,  without  very  closely  resembling  either. 
The  sound  was  produced  by  a  perpendicular  wedge 
of  metal,  called  a  Tangent,  placed  at  the  back  of  the 
key.  The  strings,  of  thin  brass  wire,  rested  on  a 
general  damper,  of  cloth.  Each  string,  when  struck 
by  the  Tangent,  was  raised  from  this,  and  thus  al- 
lowed to  vibrate,  until  the  finger  left  the  key,  when 
it  was  silenced  by  sinking  down  to  its  former  posi- 
tion upon  the  cloth.  The  tone  was  exquisitely  soft, 
and  plaintive,  and  capable  of  much  expression  under 
a  cultivated  touch.  It  was  for  this  very  beautiful 
Instrument — and  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  for 
the  Clavecin,  or  Harpsichord — that  Sebastian  Bach 
wrote  the  forty-eight  Fugues  called  the  Wohltem- 
ferirte  Clavier,  The  form  of  the  Instrument,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  subjoined  illustration,  resem- 
bled that  of  a  very  small  Square  Pianoforte.  The 
Keyboard  was  usually  fitted  with  ebony  Naturals, 
and  ivory  Sharps  like  those  of  the  Organ. ^ 

'  Though  this  is  not  a  fitting  place  in  which  to  discuss  the 
characteristics  of  the  more  modern  Pianoforte,  we  may  remark 
that  the  descent  of  this  well-known  Instrument  is  far  more  clearly 
traceable  than  that  of  the  Clavichord  to  the  venerable  Dulcimer  ; 
since  its  sound  is  really  produced  by  striking  metal  strings  with 
miniature  hammers.  The  Grand  Piano-Forte  is,  in  fact,  a  keyed 
Dulcimer,  in  principle,  and  a  Harpsichord,  in  form  and  mechanism. 


A.D.  45<^8i  !•!         The  Organ. 


'45 


i 

i 

^1 

Fig.  33. 

A  German  Clavichord.    [17th  century.] 


Of  far  greater  antiquity  than  any  of  these  Keyed 
Instruments  is  the  Organ — the  noblest  creation  of 
its  class,  though  its  undoubted  progenitor  was  the 
rustic  Syrinx,  vulgarly  known  as  Pan's  Pipes,  or 
the  Mouth- Organ.  Organs  of  simple  construction — 
sometimes  blown  by  water-power,  and  therefore 
called  Hydraulic  Organs — were  in  use  at  a  very  early 
period.  Two  very  simple  forms,  used  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  were,  the  E-egal,  and  the  Positif — the 
former,  so  small,  that  Angels  are  sometimes  repre- 
sented, playing,  with  the  right  hand,  on  the  keys  of  a 
Regal  held  in  the  left.  We  hear  of  Organs,  in  Spanish 
Churches,  as  early  as  the  year  450.  One  was  certainly 
used,  at  Eome,  in  the  time  of  Pope  Yitalian,  i.e.  about 
the  year  666.  The  first  Organ  played  in  France  was 
sent,  by  the  Emperor  Constantino  Copronymus  YI.,  to 
King  Pepin,  who  had  it  placed  in  the  Church  of  S. 
Cornelius,  at  Compiegne,  about  the  year  757.  In  811, 

L 


The  Organ,     [a.d.  1361-1606. 


the  Emperor  Charlemagne  caused  one  to  be  made,  in 
imitation  of  this,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.    This  was  the 
first  known  in  Germany,    Another  is  said  to  have 
been  sent  to  Charlemagne,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  about 
fourteen  years  later,  by  the  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid. 
In  England,  Organs  were  by  no  means  uncommon, 
as  early  as  the  year  700 ;  and  old  English  writers  in- 
varibly  speak  of  the  Instrument  as  'a  pair  of  Organs.' 
A   very    famous    Organ — minutely  described  by 
Michael  Prsetorius,  in  the  Syntagma  musicum — was 
built,  for  the  Cathedral  at  Halberstadt,  in  1361.  Im- 
mense improvements  were  made,  in  the  16th  century; 
and,  in  the  17th,  and  the  earlier  half  of  the  18th,  many 
of  the  most  celebrated  Instruments  on  record  were 
made  in  Germany,  in  Holland,  in  France,  and  in  our 
own  country.    For  many  years,  the  Organ  in  the 
Church  of  S.  Bavon,  at  Haarlem,  built  by  Christian 
Miiller,  in  1735 — 1738,  enjoyed  the  reputation  of 
being  the  largest  in  the  world.  Those  at  the  Church 
of  S.  Laurent,  Rotterdam,  the  Cathedral  at  Ulm, 
and  the  Monastery,  at  Weingarten,  were  not  very  far 
behind  it.    In  France,  large  Organs  were  built  for 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  the  Church  of  S.  Eustache, 
and  the  Cathedrals  of  Reims,  and  Toulouse.  The 
best  English  Organ-builders,  in  the  16th,  17th  and 
18th  centuries,  were,  Antony  Duddyngton,  (who  built 
the  Organ  at  All  Hallows, Barking, in  1519) ;  Thomas 
Dallam,  (King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  1606) ; 


A.D.  1 632-1 885.]      The  Orgaii. 


147 


Robert  Dallam,  (Yorkminster,  1632 — 1634r);  —  Har- 
ris, (Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  1637)  ;  Bernhardt 
Sclimidt — known,  in  England,  as  Father  Smith — a 
naturalised  Glerman,  and  the  most  famous  Organ- 
builder  in  London,  (The  Banquetting  Room  at  Whit- 
hall,  1660;  The  Temple  Church,  1682-4;  and  S. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  1694—1696) ;  Ralph  Dallam,  (S. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  1661)  ;  John  Loosemore, 
(Exeter  Cathedral,  1666) ;  Thomas  Harris,  (Worces- 
ter Cathedral,  1667)  ;  Renatus  Harris,  (Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  1690)  ;  Abraham  Jordan,  (S.  Sa- 
viour's, Southwark,  1703) ;  Richard  Bridge,  (Christ 
Church,  Spitalfields,  1730)  ;  —Parker,  (The  Found- 
ling Hospital,  1749);  Samuel  Green,  (Greenwich 
Hospital,  1789);  with  Bjfield,  England,  and  the 
later  builders,  Messrs.  Hill  and  Sons,  and  others,  too 
well  known,  at  the  present  day,  to  need  separate 
mention.  The  most  celebrated  Organ-builder  now 
carrying  on  the  great  work  of  improvement,  in 
France,  is  M.  Cavaille-Coll,  the  builder  of  the  magni- 
ficent Instruments  at  Notre  Dame,  S.  Sulpice,  and 
the  Madeleine.  In  Germany,  the  best  modern  Organs 
are  made  by  Herr  Schulze. 

Old  Organs,  more  mellow  in  tone  than  those  more 
recently  built,  are  rarely  found  in  their  original  con- 
dition ;  the  worn-out  mechanism  frequently  needing 
extensive  restoration,  and  the  temptation  to  intro- 
duce new  Stops  being  irresistible.    Our  engraving  of 

L  2 


148         Inst7'umental  Music  in  France,  [a.d.  1581. 

the  famous  Organ  at  Haarlem  is  taken  from  a  draw- 
ing made  about  fifty  years  ago. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  show  that,  if  Instru- 
mental Music  was  not  in  a  very  advanced  condition, 
in  the  early  years  of  the  17th  century,  its  neglect 
arose  from  no  lack  of  available  Musical  Instruments. 
We  have  already  chronicled  the  improved  forms  of 
Instrumentation  introduced,  by  Monteverde,  in  Italy. 
But,  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  before  the  pro- 
duction of  Monteverde' s  Arianna,  a  notable  feat  had 
already  been  accomplished,  in  France.  Amongst  the 
festivities  which  accompanied  the  marriage  of  Anne, 
Due  de  Joyeuse,  with  Margaret  of  Lorraine,  sister-in- 
law  to  King  Henrilll.,  was  a  theatrical  representation 
called  the  Ballet  comique  de  la  Eoyne,  performed, 
with  almost  incredible  splendour,  at  the  Chateau  de 
Moutiers,  on  Sunday,  the  15th  of  October,  1581. 
The  piece  was  planned  by  Baltasar  de  Beaujoyeulx, 
the  incidental  verses  written  by  M.  de  la  Chesnaye, 
and  the  Music  composed  by  Maitres  Beaulieu,  and 
Salmon.  The  performance,  which  lasted  from  ten 
o'clock,  in  the  evening,  until  four,  the  next  morning, 
was  enriched  by  decorations  of  the  most  magnificent 
description,  and  accompanied  by  a  band  of  ten  Violins, 
Ljres,  Lutes,  Harps,  a  Flageolet — played  by  Pan — 
and  other  Instruments ;  while  the  dome  of  the 
ball-room  concealed  no  less  than  ten  concerts  de 
musique,  consisting  of  Hautboys,  Cornets,  Trom- 


A.D.  1738.] 


The  Haai'lem  Organ, 


149 


T 


Le  Ballet  Comique  de  la  Royne,  [a.d.  15: 


bones,  Yiole  da  gamba,  Lutes,  Harps,  and  Flutes  ; 
besides  '  forty  more  Musicians,  playing  upon  other 
Instruments,  different  from  the  preceding.'  This 
was  a  numerous  Orchestra,  indeed.  We  subjoin  a 
specimen  of  the  Music,  which  was  printed,  in  a 
complete  form  with  the  texfc,  in  1582. 


Le  son  de  la  Clochette* 
From  Le  Ballet  Comique  de  la  Royne  (1581). 


I  I 


till, 


I      I  I 


1      t     I     I     I  J 


Fio.  35. 

From  these  small  beginnings — utterly  insignificant 
in  their  artistic  value,  notwithstanding  the  splen- 
dour which  accompanied  their  performance — arose  a 
style  of  Instrumentation  which,  as  the  century  pro- 
gressed, assumed  very  grand  proportions  indeed, 
exhibiting  a  variety  of  interesting  characteristics, 

*  By  an  absurd  anachronisni,  this  really  graceful  composition  is 
now  universally  attributed  to  King  Louis  XIII.  The  music-shops 
of  the  present  day  are  deluged  with  more  or  less  corrupt  versions 
of  the  original  Melody. 


A.D.  1 58 1.]  Le  Ballet  Coinique  de  la  Royne.  151 

which  can  be  most  conveniently  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  works  of  the  several  Composers  by 
whom  they  were  either  invented,  or  brought  to 
comparative  perfection. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  LATEE  COMPOSERS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Though  the  first  productions  of  the  Mouodic  School 
were  abundantly  disfigured  by  the  defects  naturally 
consequent  upon  the  sudden  adoption  of  a  new  and 
untried  style,  no  long  time  elapsed  before  the 
apostles  of  progress  saw  their  labours  crowned  with 
a  glorious  and  well-merited  success.  The  early 
efi'orts  of  Monteverde,  and  Cavalli,  prepared  the  way 
for  a  later  generation  of  composers,  whose  works 
are,  even  now,  regarded  as  masterpieces  of  a  style, 
none  the  less  beautiful  because  no  longer  cultivated. 

The  most  prominent  Italian  composers  of  the  bril- 
liant period  which  followed  the  inauguration  of  the 
Monodic  School  were,  Carissimi,  Colonna,  Alessandro 
Stradella,  Francesco  and  Luigi  de'  Rossi,  and  greatest 
of  all — Alessandro  Scarlatti. 

Giacomo  Carissimi  is  supposed  to  have  been  born, 
at  Marino,  in  the  Roman  States,  about  the  year 
1604 ;  and  is  known  to  have  died,  at  Rome,  in 
1674.     He  devoted   himself  chiefly  to  the  com- 


A.D.  1 604-1 695.]  G,  Carissimi,  G,  P.  Colonna.  153 

position  of  Sacred  Music,  to  wliich  lie  imparted 
an  ineffable  grace,  combined  with  a  richness  of 
instrumental  accompaniment  very  much  in  advance 
of  the  age.  Very  little  of  his  Music  has  been 
published  ;  but  the  Libraries  of  Chris tchurch,  Ox- 
ford, the  Fitzwilliam  Collection,  at  Cambridge,  and 
the  British  Museum,  contain  rich  collections  of 
his  MSS.,  many  more  of  which  are  preserved  in  the 
Paris  Library,  and  that  of  the  Conservatoire.  His 
Oratorios,  Jefie^  and  Jona^  have  lately  been  published, 
in  a  complete  form,  in  London. 

Giovanni  Paolo  Colonna  was  born  at  Brescia,  in 
1640,  and  died,  at  Bologna,  in  1695.  His  only 
Opera,  Aviilcare,  was  produced  in  1693,  but  added 
little  to  his  fame.  His  Sacred  Music  is  massive, 
dignified,  and  in  every  way  worthy  of  the  School  to 
which  it  belongs.  The  Royal  College  of  Music 
possesses  a  rare  volume,  containing  a  Mass,  and  an 
Officium  defunctorum,  for  eight  voices,  of  remarkable 
grandeur. 

The  name  of  Alessandro  Stradella  has  been  so 
frequently  mentioned,  in  connection  with  a  fatal 
love  adventure,  that  it  seems  to  belong  more  pro- 
perly to  the  domain  of  Romance,  than  to  that  of 
sober  History  :  nevertheless,  he  has  left  behind  him 
tangible  proofs  of  a  very  extraordinary  talent.  He 
is  said  to  have  written  many  Operas ;  but  two  only 
are  now  to  be  found  :  La  Forza  delV  Amor  paterno, 


154  Alessandro  Stradella.  [17TH  Century. 

dated,  Genoa,  1578,  and  Jl  Trespolo,  said  to  liave 
been  performed,  at  Bologna,  in  1682.  His  greatest 
work,  however,  was  an  Oratorio,  called  S.  Giovanni 
Battista ;  and,  upon  the  history  of  this  is  based  the 
romantic  tradition  which  has  rendered  his  name 
familiar  to  many  who  have  never  heard  a  note  of 
his  Music. 

During  the  course  of  a  protracted  residence  in 
Venice,  Stradella  became  acquainted  with,  and 
deeply  enamoured  of,  a  lady  named  Ortensia,  the 
protegee  of  a  nobleman  of  high  rank,  who,  in  the 
oldest  account  we  possess,  is  called  Pignaver,  though 
later  writers  have  described  him  as  a  cadet  of  the 
Contarini  family.  On  hearing  of  the  young  com- 
poser's passion  for  Ortensia,  Pignaver  hired  two  hravi 
to  assassinate  him.  With  the  dogged  pertinacity  of 
their  class,  these  desperate  men  followed  Stradella 
to  Eome ;  and,  hearing  that  his  Oratorio  was  to  be 
performed,  on  a  certain  afternoon,  in  the  Church  of 
S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  they  fixed  upon  that  day 
for  the  commission  of  their  crime.  To  while  away 
the  time,  they  entered  the  Church ;  but  the  beauty 
of  the  Music  affected  them  so  deeply,  that,  instead  of 
carrying  out  their  horrible  purpose,  they  warned 
their  intended  victim  of  the  danger  with  which  he 
was  threatened.  Stradella  then  fled  to  Turin,  where 
the  attempt  upon  his  life  was  repeated,  by  another 
party  of  assassins,  who,  at  Pignaver's  instigation, 


I7TH  Century. J  Alessandro  Stradella.  155 

wounded  him  severely,  but  failed  to  kill  him.  After 
this,  he  married  Ortensia,  and  removed,  with  her,  to 
Genoa,  where  a  third  band  of  hram  actually  succeeded 
in  assassinating  him,  together  with  his  young  and 
beautiful  wife.  According  to  Bonnet-Bourdelot, 
who  gives  the  legend  in  detail,  the  actual  assassina- 
tion took  place  about  the  year  1670,  a  year  having 
then  elapsed  since  Stradella' s  recovery  from  the 
wound  received  at  Turin :  but  there  are  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  Oratorio  was  not  performed  at 
Eome  until  some  six  or  seven  years  later  than  this ; 
and  a  Cantata,  called  IlBarclieggio,  is  known  to  have 
been  composed  by  Stradella  in  1681.  The  whole 
story,  indeed,  needs  confirmation. 

Stradella  is  best  known,  at  the  present  day,  by 
an  Aria  di  Ghiesa,  entitled  Pieta  Signore,  popularly 
believed  to  have  formed  part  of  the  Oratorio,  and 
to  have  been  the  very  Air  by  the  solemnity  of  which 
the  assassins  were  turned  from  their  dastardly  pur- 
pose. The  task  of  exposing  a  popular  fallacy  is 
always  an  ungrateful  one.  But,  it  is  impossible  to 
beheve  that  this  very  beautiful  composition  is  really 
the  work  of  Stradella.  It  certainly  forms  no  part 
of  S.  Giovanni  Battista ;  and  the  words  are,  as 
certainly,  to  be  found  in  Scarlatti's  Oratorio,  Santa 
Theodosia.  In  style,  it  resembles  neither  the  work 
of  Stradella,  nor  that  of  Scarlatti;  but  it  cer- 
tainly does  bear  a  most  remarkable  resemblance  to 


156  Francesco  de'  Rossi.  [17TH  Century. 

tlie  style  of  Francesco  de'  Eossi,  to  wliom,  how- 
ever, we  have  never  heard  it  attributed.  The  idea 
that  it  is  the  work  of  Hossini,  or  Niedermejer,  is 
even  more  extravagant  than  its  popular  acceptance 
as  a  genuine  composition  by  Stradella  himself. 

Francesco  de'  Rossi,  from  whose  pen  we  possess 
compositions  closely  resembling  the  style  of  the 
Aria  di  Ghiesa,  was  a  Canon  of  Bari,  where  he  is 
known  to  have  been  living  in  1680 — 1688.  His 
best  Operas  were  II  Sejano,  Clorilda,  Mitrane,  and 
La  jpena  degV  occhi.  Few  Contralto  singers  are  un- 
acquainted with  the  beautiful  Scena,  Ah  rendimi 
qual  core,  from  Mitrane. 

Luigi  Rossi,  of  whose  presence  in  Rome  we  hear 
as  early  as  the  year  1620,  was  also  a  very  talented 
composer.  Many  of  his  Cantatas  exist,  in  MS.,  in 
the  Libraries  of  Christchurch,  Oxford,  and  the 
British  Museum;  and  a  MS.  Opera — II  Palazzo 
incantato — may  be  seen  in  that  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Music. 

But,  none  of  these  composers  rivalled,  either  in 
talent,  or  reputation,  their  great  contemporary, 
Alessandro  Scarlatti.  This  brilliant  genius  was  born 
at  Trapani,  in  Sicily,  in  1659,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Carissimi.  The  secret  of  his  enormous  strength  lay 
in  his  recognition  of  the  true  value  of  Counterpoint. 
Undazzled  by  the  fallacies  of  the  Renaissance,  he 
was  wise  enough  to  see  that  the  Art  for  which  Peri 


A.D.  1659-1725.]  Alessand7'o  Scarlatti. 


157 


and  Monteverde  had  expressed  tlieir  undisguised 
contempt  formed  the  technical  basis  of  all  true 
greatness  in  Music.  Convinced  that  natural  talent, 
uncultivated  by  severe  study,  lost  more  than  half 
its  force,  he  laboured  at  the  Science  of  Com- 
position, until  he  found  himself  everywhere  recog- 
nised as  the  most  learned  Musician,  as  well  as  the 
greatest  genius,  of  the  age.  His  power  of  produc- 
tion was  almost  incredible.  His  first  Opera,  L'  Onesta 
neir  Amove,  produced  in  1680,  was  followed,  at 
different  intervals,  by  no  less  than  a  hundred  and 
fourteen  others.  He  is  known  to  have  written  two 
hundred  Masses  ;  and  far  more  than  twice  that  num- 
ber of  Cantatas ;  besides  innumerable  other  works. 
Unhappily,  very  few  indeed  of  these  have  been 
printed.  The  Library  at  Christchurch  possesses 
three  of  his  Operas,  in  MS. — Gerone,  dated  '  1692 
e  scritta  1G93,'  II  Flavio  Cuniherto,  and  La  Teodora 
Augusta;  and  one,  II  Prigioniero  fortiinato,  is  in  the 
Dragonetti  Collection  at  the  British  Museum  :  but 
these  are  valuable  rarities.  The  style  of  them  all  is 
wonderfully  advanced.  Gerone,  and  La  Teodora, 
contain  Airs  with  Trumpet  ohbligato  ;  and  II  Flavio 
Cuniberto  begins  with  a  regular  Overture.  Signs  of 
rapid  progress  are  everywhere  apparent — most  of  all, 
in  the  conduct  of  the  Recitative,  and  the  form  of  the 
Aria.  Scarlatti,  indeed,  enjoys  the  credit  of  having 
invented  both  the  Accompanied  Recitative,  and  the 


158  A lessand^'o  Scarlatti.  [ a.d  .  1 6  5  9- 1 7  2  5 . 

Da  Cajjo.  To  tlie  first  of  these,  Dramatic  Music  is 
indebted  for  one  of  its  most  powerful  means  of  ex- 
pression :  tlie  second,  though  in  itself  a  great  inven- 
tion, very  nearly  proved  its  destruction.  That  the 
Da  Capo,  which  played  so  important  a  roJe  in  the 
Vocal  Music  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  advancement  of  '  Form ' 
in  musical  Composition,  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  but, 
it  was  altogether  opposed  to  the  truth  of  dramatic 
expression.  That  the  action  of  a  stirring  Scene 
should  be  delayed,  in  order  that  the  singer  might 
repeat  the  first  part  of  his  Air,  in  its  integrity, 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  second  part,  was  absurd. 
That  the  process  should  he  repeated,  in  Air  after 
Air,  almost  without  exception,  was  monstrous.  And 
so  it  came  to  pass,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
merit  of  the  invention,  it  introduced  a  new  ele- 
ment which,  in  process  of  time,  degraded  the 
Opera  to  the  level  of  a  Concert  on  the  Stage.  Peri, 
and  his  contemporaries,  worked  upon  a  true  prin- 
ciple, though  their  Music  did  not  possess  intrinsic 
beauty  enough  to  render  it  endurable  at  the  present 
day.  Scarlatti  and  his  disciples  wrote  beautiful 
Music,  but  worked  upon  a  principle  so  false,  that  it 
struck  at  the  very  root  of  true  dramatic  effect.  We 
know,  now,  that  the  ultimate  success  of  the  Musical 
Drama  depended  upon  the  union  of  the  two  strong 
points,  and  the  elimination  of  the  weak  ones — the 


A.D.  1 633-1 68 7.]    G,  BapL  Lullz. 


159 


production  of  beautiful  Music,  upon  true  dramatic 
principles — but  aweary  period  elapsed  before  another 
genius,  greater  than  even  that  of  Scarlatti,  demon- 
strated the  possibility  of  reducing  this  axiom  to 
practice. 

Alessandro  Scarlatti  died,  at  Naples,  in  1725, 
leaving  behind  him  a  sou,  named  Domenico,  who 
became  one  of  the  greatest  Harpsichord  players 
on  record,  and  with  whom,  ere  long,  we  shall  meet 
again. 

His  greatest  contemporaries,  in  Germany,  were 
the  older  members  of  the  Bach  family,  who  steadily 
advanced  the  progress  of  Art,  more  especially  in  the 
higher  branches  of  Sacred  Music,  and  Music  for 
the  Organ,  until  the  glories  of  their  immortal  House 
culminated  in  the  great  John  Sebastian  Bach, 
whose  productive  power,  during  the  earlier  half  of 
the  18th  century,  rivalled  that  of  Scarlatti  in  the 
17th. 

In  France,  a  distinctive  national  School  was  in- 
augurated, about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
by  Giovanni  Baptista  Lulli,  a  native  of  Florence, 
who  was  brought  to  Paris,  in  1646,  as  Page  to 
Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier.  Though  then  only 
thirteen  years  of  age,  Lulli  had  already  shown  signs 
of  precocious  talent ;  but  he  was  too  young  to  have 
cultivated  a  specialitS,  and  to  this  fortunate  circum- 
stance France  was  indebted  for  the  formation  of  a 


i6o  G,  BapL  Lulli,  [a.d.  1633-1687. 

Scliool  which  she  may  justly  claim  as  her  own.  He 
afterwards  obtained  a  place  in  the  EoyalBand;  and 
gave  so  great  satisfaction  to  King  Louis  XIV.,  that 
a  smaller  Band,  les  petits  violons,  was  established  for 
him,  and  placed  under  his  sole  command.  He  now 
devoted  himself  to  composition ;  was  permitted  to 
prepare  the  Ballets  in  which  the  King  himself  danced; 
and,  jealous  of  the  success  of  Cambert,  in  a  higher 
walk  of  Art,  ended  by  composing  Operas,  in  a  style 
peculiarly  his  own.  With  the  assistance  of  Madame 
de  Montespan,  he  obtained,  in  1672,  the  privilege, 
formerly  granted  to  the  Abbe  Perrin,  of  establishing 
an  Academic  de  Musique  ;  and  the  power  thus  placed 
in  his  hands  enabled  him  to  bring  out  his  Operas — 
the  lihretti  for  which  were  furnished  by  Quinault — 
with  extraordinary  magnificence,  and  to  lay,  in  them, 
the  foundation  of  the  national  Grand  Opera.  Within 
the  short  space  of  fourteen  years,  he  produced  no 
less  than  twenty  Operas,  the  most  successful  of  which 
were,  Tliesee  [1675],  Atys  [1676],  Isis  [1677],  Ro- 
land [1685],  and  Armide  [1686].  He  enjoys  the 
credit  of  having  invented  the  form  of  Overture,  con- 
sisting of  a  stately  Prelude,  a  Fugue,  and  a  con- 
cluding Minuet,  or  other  Dance  Tune,  which 
Handel  brought  to  perfection,  and  almost  every  com- 
poser of  the  period  cultivated  with  success.  But 
the  strongest  point  in  his  Operas  was,  the  rhetorical 
force  of  his  Eecitative :  and  it  is  chieflv  to  this  that 


A. D.  1633-^687-]  The  French^  Gi^and  Opir  a.'  161 

he  owes  his  reputation  as  the  father  of  the  French 
Grand  Ojpera. 

Lulli  died,  in  1687,  leaving  the  Academie  de  Mu- 
sique  firmly  established,  though  many  years  elapsed 
before  a  successor  capable  of  worthily  carrying 
on  his  work  appeared  upon  the  scene. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


THE  ENGLISH  SCHOOL  OP  THE  RESTORATION. 

While  Alessandro  Scarlatti  was  labouring  for  tlie 
advancement  of  Italian  Art,  and  Lulli  establishing  a 
national  School,  in  France,  England  did  not  remain 
idle. 

Though  the  Great  Rebellion  put  an  end,  for  the 
time,  to  all  hope  of  progress,  a  brighter  period  was 
not  far  distant ;  and  the  School  established,  under 
the  patronage  of  King  Charles  II.,  after  the  Restora- 
tion, was  one  of  the  richest  we  have  ever  possessed. 
The  hatred  of  the  Puritans  for  Music  had,  long 
before  this,  resulted  in  the  dispersion  of  every  Cathe- 
dral and  Collegiate  Choir  throughout  the  country. 
The  new  race  of  preachers,  and  their  congregations, 
detested  the  Music  of  the  Anglican  Church  with  all 
the  bitterness  of  which  sectarian  bigotry  was  capable. 
Every  Organ  and  Office-Book  that  fell  into  their 
hands  was  destroyed,  as  a  sacred  duty.  Every  as- 
piration after  the  beautiful  in  Art  was  condemned, 
as  an  inspiration  of  Belial.    It  is  said  that  Crom- 


A.  D.  1 64 1 .]  Barnard's  '  Selected  Church  Music'    1 6  3 

well's  partiality  for  Music  prompted  him  to  bestow 
tlie  Oxford  Professorship  on  the  Lutenist,  John 
Wilson,  in  1656.  Milton  certainly  cultivated  the 
Art ;  and  wrote  verses  in  praise  of  his  '  tuneful ' 
friend,  Henry  Lawes.  But  these  were  isolated 
instances.  The  people  were  not  '  tuneful.'  It  is 
true,  they  sang  metrical  Psalms,  in  unison,  after  the 
Genevan  manner,  with  never-failing  perseverance ; 
but  their  zeal  was  untempered  by  discretion,  and 
their  vocal  performances  were  as  far  removed  beyond 
the  pale  of  legitimate  Art  as  those  of  a  wild  camp- 
meeting  at  the  present  day.  The  re-integration  of 
a  Cathedral  or  Collegiate  Choir,  under  such  circum- 
stances as  these,  was  a  matter  of  infinite  diflficulty. 
Few  parents  would  permit  their  children  to  wear 
the  hated  Surphce.  Scarcely  an  Organ  remained  in 
England  :  and,  so  successful  had  been  the  raid  upon 
the  Choir-Books,  that  no  complete  copy  of  the  Rev. 
John  Barnard's  ^  First  Book  of  Selected  Church 
Music,'  published  in  1641,  is  believed  to  be  now  in 
existence;  though,  happily,  it  has  been  found  pos- 
sible, within  the  last  few  years,  to  make  up  an  entire 
set  of  the  ten  precious  volumes,  by  the  union  of 
two  imperfect  copies  in  the  Libraries  of  Hereford 
Cathedral,  and  the  Royal  College  of  Music. ^  It 
seems,  indeed,  more  than  probable  that  a  certain 

^  This  last-named  Library  was  formerly  the  property  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society. 

M  2 


164  Captain  Henry  Cooke,  [a.d.  i 642-1 672. 

number  of  complete  copies  may  have  been  found,  at 
the  time  of  the  Restoration,  and  may  have  since  dis- 
appeared. For,  as  it  was  not  until  many  years  after 
this  that  a  second  collection  issued  from  the  press, 
it  is  clear  that  such  stray  copies,  supplemented 
by  a  few  rescued  MSS.,  must  have  furnished  the  only 
repertoire  accessible  to  Cathedral  Choirs,  during  the 
period  of  their  reorganisation.  That  a  certain 
number  of  MSS.  were  saved  from  destruction,  by  the 
piety  of  Choristers,  and  Clergy,  cannot  be  doubted, 
since  many  such  treasures  are  still  in  existence. 
But,  their  number  was,  comparatively,  very  small 
indeed ;  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  them  was 
almost  insurmountable. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  tbis  formidable  array  of 
difficulties,  no  sooner  was  King  Charles  II.  firmly 
established  at  Whitehall,  than  he  reorganised  the 
Choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  on  a  grander  scale  than  it 
had  ever  before  presented;  wisely  committing  its 
management  to  Captain  Henry  Cooke,  a  former 
Chorister,  who,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Re- 
bellion, had  relinquished  the  profession  of  Music, 
for  that  of  Arms,  and,  joining  the  Royalist  Army, 
had  received,  in  1642,  a  Captain's  Commission,  thus 
bravely  earning  the  military  title,  which  he  retained 
until  his  death,  in  1672. 

Happily  for  Art,  the  turmoils  of  war  had  not 
tempted  Captain  Cooke  to  relinquish  the  Study  of 


A.D.  i66o.]  The  Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  165 

Music.  As  a  trainer  of  ClioristerSj  he  was  un- 
rivalled ;  and,  on  receiving  tlie  appointment  of 
'Master  of  Cliildren,'  in  1660— the  year  of  the 
Eestoration — he.  exercised  his  talent  to  such  good 
purpose,  that  no  long  time  elapsed  before  three  of 
his  first  set  of  Choristers — Pelham  Humfi^ey,  John 
Blow,  and  Michael  Wise — were  recognised  as  leaders 
of  the  new  English  School.  Amons;  his  coUeaofues 
were  three  experienced  Musicians,  Dr.  TTilliam 
Child,  (or  Chylde),  Dr.  Christopher  Gibbons,  (son 
of  Orlando),  and  Edmund  Low,  who,  having  sung 
as  Choristers — the  two  first  among  the  '  Children,' 
during  the  reign  of  King  Charles  I.,  and  the  last,  at 
Salisbury  Cathedral — were  now  appointed  joint 
Organists  of  the  Chapel.  To  these  were  added, 
Henry  Lawes — whose  brother,  William,  a  better 
Musician  than  himself,  had  fallen  gloriously,  with 
other  E-oyaUst  Ofl&cers,  before  the  walls  of  Chester, 
in  1645;  and  nineteen  other  Gentlemen;  two  of 
whom,  Henry  and  Thomas  Purcell,  afterwards  be- 
came famous  as  the  father  and  the  uncle  of  the 
greatest  musical  genius  that  England  ever  produced. 
Lawes  was  appointed  '  Gierke  of  the  Checke.' 
Though  not  a  great  composer,  he  had  been  chosen 
by  Milton,  to  prepare  the  incidental  Music  for 
ComiLS,  in  1634 ;  and  he  now  received  a  commission 
of  far  greater  importance — that  of  composing,  in 
conjunction  with  Captain  Cooke,  the  Music  for  the 


i66 


Matthew  Locke,         [a.d.  i66i. 


approaching  Coronation,  wliich  took  place  on  April 
23,  1661.  The  Mu«ic  played  by  the  '  Sagbutts  and 
Cornets,'  during  the  King's  triumphal  progress  from 
the  Tower  to  Whitehall,  on  the  previous  day,  was 
composed  by  Matthew  Locke,  an  old  Chorister  of 
Exeter,  whose  talent  far  exceeded  that  of  the  best 
of  his  colleagues,  and  whose  name,  thanks  to  his 
famous  and  deservedly  popular  Music  to  Macbeth,  is 
as  well  known,  at  the  present  day,  as  it  was  at  the 
time  of  which  we  are  writing.^ 

The  Procession  to  Whitehall  was  too  important, 
as  a  political  demonstration,  to  be  lightly  passed 
over.  The  '  spectacle '  was  magnificent,  and  the 
'  Musick  for  y®  Sagbutts  and  Cornets '  produced  so 
marked  an  effect  that  Matthew  Locke  was  at  once 
promoted  to  the  Office  of  '  Composer  in  Ordinary  to 
the  King.'  In  this  capacity,  he  assisted  his  trusty 
companions  in  their  earnest  endeavours  to  recover 
the  ground  which  had  so  unhappily  been  lost,  and 
contributed  his  share  of  the  new  Anthems  and  Ser- 
vices needed  for  the  resuscitated  Choir.  The  exact 
manner  in  which  the  Anthems  sung  at  the  Corona- 

^  Within  the  last  few  years,  critics  have  manifested  a  growing 
inclination  to  attribute  the  beautiful  old  '  Musick  in  Macbeth/  to 
Purcell.  The  idea,  first  broached  by  Dr.  W.  Hayes,  is  now  adopted 
by  critics  whose  opinions  cannot  be  lightly  set  aside  :  but,  no  direct 
evidence  can  be  brought  forward  in  support  of  it ;  and,  in  the 
absence  of  such  evidence,  it  is  manifestly  unsafe  to  reject  a  tradi- 
tion which  for  so  many  years  was  received  without  question. 


A.D.  1 66 1.]  Henry  Lawes.    Dr,  Child.  167 

tion  were  divided  between  Henry  Lawes  and  Captain 
Cooke  cannot  be  ascertained ;  but,  it  is  certain  tbat 
Lawes  composed  Zadoh  the  Priest.  Tlie  composi- 
tions produced  by  Dr.  Child,  between  the  date  of 
his  appointment,  and  the  time  of  his  death,  were 
very  numerous.  But,  the  style  of  these  hard-work- 
ing veterans  was  not  that  in  which  the  King  de- 
lighted. During  the  weary  years  he  spent  in  exile, 
the  '  Merrie  Monarch  '  had  cultivated  a  passionate 
love  for  the  lighter  form  of  Church  Music  then 
fashionable  on  the  Continent ;  and,  most  especially, 
for  that  introduced  by  Lulli  at  the  Court  of  France. 
Compared  with  this,  the  solemn.,  strains  of  Tallis, 
Byrd,  and  even  the  more  tuneful  phrases  of  Farrant, 
and  Orlando  Gibbons,  seemed  severe  indeed.  The 
deep  tones  of  the  Organ  seemed  but  a  poor  sub- 
stitute for  the  ceaseless  changes  of  the  full  Or- 
chestra. The  veterans  did  their  best :  but,  the 
King's  tg.ste  was  not  their  taste ;  and,  with  the 
most  loyal  intentions  in  the  world,  they  scarcely 
succeeded  even  in  meeting  it  half  way. 

In  imitation  of  the  usages  then  prevailing  at 
Versailles,  the  King  filled  the  Organ-loft  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  with  Viols,  Sagbutts,  and  Cornets; 
and  commanded  his  Organists  to  intersperse  their 
Anthems  with  ititornelli,  calculated  to  display  the 
powers  of  these  brilliant  instruments  to  the  greatest 
possible  advantage.    In  a  document  still  in  exist- 


i68 


'  His  Majestie' s  Violins.^    [a.d.  1662. 


ence,  in  tlie  handwriting  of  Thomas  Purcell,  the 
names  of  twenty-four  instrumental  performers  are 
mentioned,  under  the  title  of  '  The  Gen*-  of  his 
jyj^gj tie's  Priyate  Musick.'  Elsewhere,  they  are  called 
'His  Majestie's  Violins;'  and,  in  1672,  we  hear  of 
the  appointment  of  Thomas  Purcell,  and  Pelham 
Humfrey,  as  'Composers  in  Ordinary  for  the 
Violins.'  The  new  instruments  were  first  intro- 
duced, on  Sunday,  the  14th  of  September,  1662 ; 
and,  among  those  who  were  permitted  to  hear 
them  was  a  gentleman  to  whose  quaint  pen  we 
are  indebted  for  a  mass  of  priceless  information  on 
this,  as  on  so  many  other  subjects.  In  his  immortal 
Diary,  Pepys  tells  us  how,  on  the  day  in  question, 
he  went — 

'  To  Whitehall  Chapel,  when  sermon  almost  done,  and  I  heard 
Captain  Cooke's  new  musique.  This  the  first  of  having  vialls  and 
other  instruments  to  play  a  symphony  between  every  verse  of  the 
anthems,  but  the  musique  more  full  than  it  was  last  Sunday,  and 
very  fine  it  is.  But  yet  I  could  discerne  Captain  Cooke  to  overdo 
his  part  at  singing,  which  I  never  did  before.  [September  14, 
1662.]' 

In  another  entry,  the  '  symphonys '  are  again 
described;  but,  without  special  mention  of  the 
'  vialls.' 

No  record  could  possibly  be  more  circumstantial 
than  this ;  yet,  there  is  a  difference  between  the 
date  here  mentioned,  and  that  given  by  Evelyn, 


A.D.  1662.]    Captain  Cooke' s  Anthems.  169 


who,  in  describing  his  visit  to  the  Chapel,  on 
Dec.  21,  1662,  tells  us  that— 

'  One  of  his  Majesty's  chaplains  preached ;  after  which,  instead 
of  the  ancient,  grave,  and  solemn  wind  musiq  accompanying  the 
organ,  was  introduced  a  concert  of  twenty-four  violins  between 
every  pause,  after  the  French  fantastical  light  way,  better  suiting 
a  tavern  or  playhouse  than  a  Church.  This  was  the  first  time  of 
change,  and  now  we  no  more  heard  the  cornet  which  gave  life  to 
the  organ  ;  that  instrument  quite  left  off  in  which  the  English 
were  so  skilful.    [Dec.  21,  1662.]  ' 

It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  ac- 
counts, except  upon  the  hypothesis  that  Evelyn, 
having  attended  the  Services  less  frequently  than 
Pepys,  supposed  that  the  Violins  were  really  played 
for  the  first  time  on  the  occasion  on  which  he  first 
heard  them  played. 

Pepys  was  a  constant  attendant  at  the  Chapel 
Eoyal ;  and  his  complaint  that  Captain  Cooke 
seemed  to  '  overdo '  his  part,  on  the  occasion  in 
question,  was  probably  just ;  for  he  fully  appreciated 
Captain  Cooke's  talent,  as  we  find  from  other 
entries. 

*  After  sermon,  a  brave  anthem  of  Captain  Cooke's,  which  he 
himself  sang,  and  the  king  was  well  pleased  with  it.  [August  1 2, 
1660.]' 

'  A  poor  dry  sermon,  but  a  very  good  anthem  of  Captain  Cooke's 
afterwards.    [Oct.  7,  1660.] ' 

'  To  Whitehall  Chapel,  with  Mr.  Childe,  and  there  did  hear 
Captain  Cooke  and  his  Boys  make  trial  of  an  anthem  against  to- 
morrow, which  was  brave  musique.    [Feb.  23,  1661.] ' 


170 


Captain  Cooke's  Boys.       [a.d.  1663. 


*  Captain  Cooke,  Mr.  Gibbons,  and  others  of  the  King's 
musicians  were  come  to  present  my  Lord  with  some  songs  and 
symphonys,  which  were  performed  very  finely.    [May  19,  1661.]  ' 

'  After  dinner,  Mr.  Townsend  was  called  upon  by  Captain  Cooke  ; 
so  we  three  went  to  a  taverne  hard  by,  and  there  he  did  give  us  a 
song  or  two,  and  without  doubt  he  hath  the  best  manner  of  singing 
in  the  world.    [July  27,  1661.]' 

'  We  had  an  excellent  anthem  sung  by  Captain  Cooke  and 
another,  and  brave  musique.  After  dinner,  to  Chappel  again,  and 
there  had  another  anthem  of  Captain  Cooke's.    [May  18,  1662.]  ' 

'  Captain  Cooke  and  his  two  Boys  did  sing  some  Italian  songs 
which,  I  must  in  a  word  say,  I  think  was  fully  the  best  musique 
that  I  ever  yet  heard  in  all  my  life.    [Dec.  21,  1663.] ' 

It  is  clear,  from  this,  that  Captain  Coolie  worked 
hard,  and  successfully.  Clear,  also,  that  his  style 
was  more  advanced  than  that  of  Drs.  Child,  and 
Gibbons,  who  still  clung  to  the  old  traditions.  The 
last  entry  proves  that  the  Choristers  also  were 
making  splendid  progress.  The  names  of  the  two 
Boys  are  not  mentioned ;  but  we  may  be  sure  that 
Pelham  Humfrey  was  one  of  them,  while  the  other 
was,  in  all  probability,  either  Michasl  Wise,  or  John 
Blow.  That  three  such  Choristers  should  be  sing- 
ing together  was  a  happy  coiocidence  on  which  any 
Choirmaster  in  the  world  might  well  have  con- 
gratulated himself.  Yet,  it  did  not  represent  so 
much  as  the  moiety  of  Captain  Cooke's  good  fortune. 
For,  by  this  time,  he  had  reinforced  the  Choir  of 
the  Chapel  Eoyal  with  three  more  Children,  of  such 
superlative  excellence,  that  such  a  body  of  Choir- 


A.D.  1 663. J  Michcel  Wise.    John  Blow,  171 

Boys  as  that  produced  by  the  union  of  his.  first  and 
second  sets  had  probably  never  before,  and  has 
certainly  never  since,  been  gathered  together.  He 
must  have  been  gifted  with  a  wonderful  talent  for 
the  recognition,  not  only  of  beautiful  voices,  but 
of  youthful  talent,  also  y  or  he  would  not  have  suc- 
ceeded in  finding,  as  the  coadjutors  of  Humfrey, 
Wise,  and  Blow,  three  such  Boys  as  Thomas  Tudway, 
William  Turner,  and,  greater  than  all  combined, 
Henry  Purcell. 

King  Charles  treated  his  Choristers  with  that 
bonhomie  which  was  inseparable  from  his  nature, 
and  gave  their  talent  every  possible  encouragement. 
He  wished  them  to  compose ;  and  they  naturally 
strove,  with  heart  and  soul,  to  please  a  master  who 
knew  them  all  by  name,  and  condescended  to  listen 
to  their  Anthems  in  open  Chapel,  and  to  testify  his 
approval  of  them  with  a  smile.  This  happened  con- 
stantly. In  Clifford's 'DwTie  Services  and  Anthems 
published  in  1663,  we  find  the  words  of  no  less 
than  five  Anthems  composed  by  Pelham  Humfrey, 
'One  of  the  Children  of  His  Majesty's  Chappel;' 
and  five  more,  by  John  Blow.  Each  one  came  to  the 
front,  in  his  turn ;  but  an  opportunity  soon  occurred 
for  bringing  forward  three  of  them,  together. 

On  a  certain  Saturday,  intelligence  was  brought 
to  Whitehall  of  a  naval  engagement  resulting  in  the 
capture  of  135  Dutch  vessels.    Overjoyed  at  the 


172 


'  The  Club  Anthem!       [a.d.  1664. 


victory,  the  King  determined  to  celebrate  it  by  a 
solemn  Thanksgiving  Service,  on  the  following  day ; 
and,  in  order  to  render  this  as  impressive  as  possible, 
he  commanded  that  a  '  Thanksgiving  Anth-em ' 
should  be  composed  for  it,  to  the  words,  I  will 
alway  give  thanJcs.  Unhappily,  not  one  of  the  Com- 
posers attached  to  the  Chapel  would  undertake  to 
produce  Music,  of  the  required  grandeur,  at  so 
short  a  notice.  But,  the  task  that  neither  Dr.  Child, 
nor  Captain  Cooke,  felt  bold  enough  to  undertake, 
three  of  these  wonderful  Children  declared  them- 
selves ready  to  perform — and  actually  did  perform. 
Pelham  Humfrey  composed  the  first  part  of  the 
Anthem,  Wilham  Turner  wrote  the  Bass  Solo  which 
formed  the  middle  movement,  and  John  Blow  fur- 
nished the  concluding  Chorus.  The  whole  was 
finished,  in  good  time ;  and,  on  the  following  day, 
was  sung,  with  success,  at  the  solemn  Thanksgiving. 
This  marvellous  history  of  the  once-famous  '  Club 
Anthem '  rests  on  the  authority  of  Thomas  Tudway, 
whose  MS.  copy  of  the  work  is  now  in  the  Library 
of  the  British  Museum.  The  story  formed,  of 
course,  a  portion  of  his  own  personal  recollections 
of  a  very  happy  time ;  but  it  has  been  disputed,  on 
the  ground  of  some  trifling  chronological  difficulty, 
and  Dr.  Boyce  imagined  the  '  Club  Anthem  '  to 
have  been  composed  by  the  three  Choristers  in 
memory  of  their  mutual  affection  for  each  other. 


A.D.  1664.]  Pelham  Htcmfrey. 


173 


Surelj  the  story  told  by  their  own  school-fellow 
must  be  the  true  one  !  ^ 

Pelham  Humfrey  was,  at  this  time,  the  leading 
spirit  of  the  Choir ;  and,  in  every  way,  a  very  re- 
markable character.  Pepys  has  drawn  his  portrait, 
more  than  once,  in  vivid  colours. 

'  The  anthem  was  good  after  sermon,  being  the  fifty-first  Psalme, 
made  for  five  voices  by  one  of  Captain  Cooke's  Boys — a  pretty 
Boy.  And  they  say  there  are  four  or  five  of  them  that  can  do  as 
much.  And  here  I  first  perceived  that  the  King  is  a  little 
mnsicall,  and  kept  good  time  with  his  hand  all  along  the  anthem. 
[Nov.  22,  1663.]' 

The  'pretty  Boy'  must  necessarily  have  been 
Pelham,  for  the  Anthem  in  question  is  still  in  exist- 
ence, and  printed  in  Boyce's  '  Cathedral  Music'  As 
he  was  born  in  1647,  he  must  then  have  been  be- 
tween fifteen  and  sixteen  years  old.  With  regard 
to  the  '  four  or  five  of  them,'  we  have  already  shown 
that  there  were  six,  who  could  '  do  as  much.' 

In  1664  Pelham  quitted  the  Choir — no  doubt,  in 
consequence  of  the  breaking  of  his  voice — and  was 
sent,  at  the  King's  expense,  to  study,  in  France, 
and  Italy.  He  remained  on  the  Continent  between 
three  and  four  years,  spending  the  greater  part  of 

^  The  objection  is  this.  Pelham  Humfrey  left  the  Choir  in 
1664.  The  Duke  of  York's  great  naval  victory  over  the  Dutch 
was  not  won  until  1665.  But,  in  1664,  before  war  was  formally 
declared,  an  engagement  took  place,  in  which  the  English  captured 
no  less  than  135  Dutch  vessels. 


174 


Pelham  Humfrey.         [a.d.  1667. 


that  time  in  Paris,  where  he  studied  under  Lulli. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1667,  and  his  manners 
and  appearance  are  thus  described  by  Pepys, — 

*  Home,  and  there  find,  as  I  expected,  Mr.  Caesar,  and  little 
Pelham  Humphreys,  lately  returned  from  France,  and  is  an  abso- 
lute Mosieur,  as  full  of  form  and  confidence  and  vanity,  and  dis- 
parages everything  and  everybody's  skill  but  his  own.  But  to 
hear  how  he  laughs  at  all  the  King's  musick  here,  at  Blagrave  and 
others,  that  they  cannot  keep  time  or  tune,  nor  understand  any- 
thing :  and  at  Grebus,  the  Frenchman,  the  King's  master  of 
musick,  how  he  understands  nothing,  nor  can  play  on  any  instru- 
ment, and  so  cannot  compose :  and  that  he  will  give  him  a  lift 
out  of  his  place,  and  that  he  and  the  King  are  mighty  great. 
[Nov.  15,  1667.]' 

This  picture  is  less  pleasant  than  the  earlier  ones. 
But,  however  self-sufficient  the  bright  stripling 
may  have  appeared,  he  was  able  to  hold  his  own, 
with  honour,  against  the  most  formidable  of  his 
rivals  ;  as  he  proved,  on  the  following  day,  when  a 
selection  of  his  Music  was  performed,  before  the 
King,  at  Whitehall.  He  was,  in  fact,  by  far  the 
best  English  Composer  then  living ;  and  the  cha- 
racteristic originality  of  the  style  he  introduced  so 
clearly  marks  a  new  point  of  departure  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Art,  that  he  must  always  be  regarded 
as  the  Founder  of  that  brilliant  but  short-lived 
School  of  the  Restoration,  the  brightest  ornaments 
of  which  were  cut  off,  before  their  prime,  by  acute 
disease,  or  sad  and  unexpected  disasters.    The  King 


A.D.  1 663-1 664.]  Clifford^ s'  Cathedral  Services^  175 

fully  appreciated  his  talent.  He  received  tlie  ap- 
pointment of  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,' 
even  before  his  return  to  England.  On  the  death 
of  Captain  Cooke,  July,  ISth,  1672,  he  was  appointed 
'Master  of  the  Children;'  and,  less  than  a  month 
afterwards,  he  was  nominated  Composer  in  Or- 
dinary for  the  Violins  to  his  Majesty,  conjointly  with 
Thomas  PurcelL  He  died,  at  Windsor,  July  14th5 
1674,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-seven ;  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  compositions, 
both  sacred  and  secular,  are  very  numerous ;  and 
many  of  his  Anthems,  Odes,  and  secular  Songs,  are 
published,  in  various  collections. 

The  School  of  the  Restoration  gave  birth  to  two 
characteristic  forms  of  composition  which  have  never 
since  been  forgotten,  though  cultivated  exclusively 
by  English  Composers.  The  first  of  these  was,  the 
Anglican  Chant — the  second,  the  Verse- Anthem. 

When  the  work  of  re- organising  our  Cathedral 
Choirs  first  began,  there  were  still  enough  old 
Choristers  surviving  for  the  instruction  of  new  ones 
in  the  traditional  method  of  singing  the  Psalms  to 
the  venerable  Grregorian  Tones.  To  prevent  mis- 
understanding, on  this  point,  Edward  Low  published, 
in  1661,  his  Sliori  Directions  for  the  Performance  of 
Cathedral  Service ;  and,  in  1663-4,  James  Clifford, 
Minor  Canon  of  S.  Paul's,  pubHshed  a  similar 
manual,  entitled  Cathedral  Services  and  Anthems. 


1 76  Origin  of  the '  A  nglican  Chant'  \  1 7TH  Century. 

But,  the  solemn  Plain-Chaunt  Melodies  accorded  ill 
with  the  lighter  Music  then  in  vogue ;  and  Com- 
posers of  the  new  School  were  inspired  with  the 
idea  of  writing  Chants  of  their  own.  The  form 
they  adopted  corresponded  very  nearly  with  that 
of  a  Gregorian  Tone,  deprived  of  its  Intonation.^ 
The  Chant  comprised  two  members  ;  the  first  of 
which  consisted  of  a  Eeciting-Note,  and  Mediation 
— the  second,  of  a  Eeciting-Note,  and  Ending.  It 
was,  clearly,  as  easy  to  adapt  the  Psalms  to  this, 
as  to  a  true  Tone.  Later  on,  the  length  of  the 
Chant  was  increased,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  two  verses 
of  the  Psalm,  instead  of  one.  The  first  form 
was  then  called  the  Single  Chant ;  the  second,  the 
Doable  Chant.  And  these  two  forms  remain  un- 
changed, to  the  present  day. 

The  Yerse-Anthem,  notwithstanding  the  name 
universally  applied  to  it,  bore  far  less  resemblance 
to  the  Full  Anthem  it  was  destined  to  displace, 
than  to  the  more  modern  Cantata.  From  this  it 
differed  chiefly,  in  that  it  was  usually  written  for  a 
greater  number  of  voices ;  and,  that  its  Solo 
passages — the  so-called  '  Verses '  from  which  it  took 
its  name — were  interspersed,  not  only  with  Eitornelli, 
but  with  Choruses.  The  amount  of  choral  writing 
was  sometimes  very  small.  The  real  interest  of 
the  Verse-Anthem  centred  in  the  passages  allotted 
*  See  pp.  84—86. 


1 7TH  Century.]  Origin  of  the  Verse- Anthem.  177 

to  one,  two,  three,  or  sometimes  even  more  Solo 
Voices,  with  Ritornelli  between  them ;  but,  it  al- 
ways ended  with  a  Chorus,  even  if  it  did  not  begin 
with  one ;  and  the  best  writers  took  care  that  the 
concluding  movement  should  take  the  form  of  an 
effective  climax. 

Michael  Wise  was  scarcely  less  successful  in  his 
treatment  of  the  Verse- Anthem  than  his  Choir-mate, 
Humfrey.  He  was  appointed  Organist  of  Salisbury 
Cathedral,  in  1668 ;  and  was  assassinated  in  the 
street,  in  1687. 

John  Blow,  who  was  made  a  Doctor  in  Music  by 
Archbishop  Sancroft,  adopted  a  broader  style. 
Without  undervaluing  the  melodious  sweetness  of 
Humfrey,  and  Wise,  he  enlarged  the  basis  of  the 
Verse- Anthem,  and  made  it  a  very  grand  composi- 
tion indeed.  His  two  great  works,  I  teas  in  the 
spint,  and  /  beheld  and  lo  !  a  great  multitude,  are 
among  the  best  Verse- Anthems  we  possess ;  and  his 
Full- Anthems,  The  Lord  hear  thee,  and  God  is  our 
hope,  are  models  of  modern  choral-writing.  In 
1669  he  was  appointed  Organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey — a  post  which  he  relinquished,  in  1680,  in 
favour  of  Purcell,  but  resumed  after  Purcell's  death. 
In  1674,  he  was  made  a  Gentleman  of  the  Cbapel 
Royal ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  he  succeeded  Pelham 
Humfrey  as  Master  of  the  Children,  in  which  capa- 
city he  had  the  happiness  of  educating  a  third  set 


178  He^iry  PtLTcell.   [a.d.  1658-1695. 

of  Choristers  well  worthy  of  that  E/Oyal  nursery  of 
Art,  two  of  whom,  Jeremiah  Clarke,  and  William 
Croft,  are  reckoned  among  the  best  writers  of  the 
period.  Dr.  Blow  had  also  a  large  share  in  the 
education  of  Pur  cell,  who  was  his  junior  by  many 
years.  He  died,  in  his  sixtieth  year,  October  1, 
1708,  His  compositions  are  very  numerous.  Most 
of  his  Anthems  and  Services  have  been  published, 
and  many  of  his  secular  works,  also.  Among  the 
latter,  the  most  celebrated  is,  a  collection  of  Songs, 
called  Amphion  Anglicus,  printed  in  1700. 

Drs.  Tudway,  and  Turner,  were  also  prolific 
writers;  and,  if  less  talented  than  Humfrey  and 
Wise,  did  good  service  to  the  new  School. 

But,  all  these  names  sink  into  insignificance, 
beside  that  of  Henry  Purcell,  whose  genius  would 
have  done  honour  to  any  School,  in  any  country,  or 
in  any  age. 

Henry  Purcell  was  born  in  S.  Ann's  Lane,  Old 
Pye  Street,  Westminster,  in  1658.  We  have  seen 
that  his  father,  Henry,  and  his  uncle,  Thomas,  were 
both  Gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  The  former 
died,  in  1664;  but  the  latter  took  charge  of  the 
orphan  child,  and  treated  him  as  his  own  son. 
When  the  little  '  Harry  '  was  six  years  old,  he  was 
admitted  as  a  Chorister  by  Captain  Cooke,  from 
whom  he  received  the  elements  of  his  musical 
education.    After  Captain  Cooke's  death  he  con- 


A .  D .  1675.]  Dido  and  yEneas . 


79 


tinned  his  studies,  first,  under  Pelham  Humfrej, 
and  then  under  Dr.  Blow.  His  first  known  com- 
position, produced  when  he  was  only  eleven  years 
old,  was  entitled.  The  Address  of  the  Children  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  to  the  King,  and  their  Master,  Captain 
Coolce,  on  his  Majestie's  Birthday,  A.D.  1670,  com- 
posed hy  Master  Purcell,  one  of  the  Children  of  the 
said  Chapel,  This  was  followed  by  a  succession  of 
Anthems,  many  of  which  still  remain  in  use.  But 
Purcell's  dramatic  Music  was  as  great  as  his  Music 
for  the  Church,  and  no  long  time  elapsed  before  he 
gave  a  striking  proof  of  the  fact. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  he  composed  his  first 
true  Opera,  Dido  and  ^neas,  in  1675.  It  was 
written  for  a  dancing-master,  named  Josias  Priest, 
who  kept  a  school  for  young  gentlewomen,  first,  in 
Leicester  Fields,  and,  afterwards,  at  Chelsey.^  The 
libretto  was  furnished  by  N.  Tate ;  and  the  work  is 
remarkable  as  the  first  example  of  an  Opera, 
properly  so  called,  that  was  ever  either  composed, 
or  performed,  in  this  country.  Masques  had  been 
performed  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  and 
neither  Ben  Jonson,  nor  Milton,  had  hesitated  to 
write  them.    Plays,  with  incidental  Music,  were 

^  Josias  Priest  removed  to  Chelsey  in  1680,  in  which  year,  Dido 
and  j^Eneas  was  privately  performed  in  the  new  house.  The  com- 
monly-received opinion  that  the  Opera  was  composed  in  1675  rests 
upon  the  belief  that  it  was  first  performed  in  Leicester  Fields. 

N  2 


i8o  Dido  and  ^neas.  [a.d.  1675. 

produced  every  day.    But  Dido  and  Mneas  was 
neither  a  Masque,  nor  a  Play  with  incidental  Music, 
nor  even  the  mixture  of  Music  and  spoken  Dialogue 
which  afterwards  obtained  the  generic  name  of 
English  Opera,    It  was  purely  and  simply  a  Dramma 
per  la  musica,  conceived,  and  executed,  on  the 
principle  set  forth  by  Peri,  and  his  colleagues,  at 
the  Palazzo  Bardi.    A  Grand  Opera,  in  which  every 
word  was  sung :  in  which  Recitative  and  rhythmic 
Melody  were  blended  together,  in  such  sort  as  to 
bring  out  the  oratorical  force  of  the  text,  without 
either  sacrificing  the  sense  to  the  sound,  or  the 
dramatic  power  of  the  Scene  to  the  beauty  of  the 
Music :  in  which  were  united  all  the  elements  es- 
sential to  the  existence  of  a  veritable  Musical  Drama. 
And,  in  order  to  do  Purcell  full  justice,  we  must 
remember  that  Dido  and  Mneas  was  written  five 
years  before  the  production  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti's 
first  Opera,  in  Rome.    Not  one  of  the  improvements 
introduced  by  that  great  Master  had  then  been 
invented.    And,  if  they  had,  Purcell  would  have 
known  nothing  of  them.    For,  the  strangest  circum- 
stance of  all  is,  that  he  had  never  heard  an  Opera. 
No  work  worthy  of  the  name  had  ever  been  per- 
formed in  England  ;  and  Purcell  had  never  so  much 
as  crossed  the  Channel.    The  only  conclusion  at 
which  one  can  reasonably  arrive  is,  that  Pelham 
Humfrey  may  possibly  have  shown  him  the  MS. 


A.D.  1675-1680.]  Purcelcs  Dramatic  Works.  181 

Scores  of  one  or  more  of  Lulli's  Operas,  obtained, 
bj  favour,  or  cajolery,  in  Paris ;  or,  at  least,  have 
entertained  him  with  glowing  descriptions  of  those 
he  had  himself  seen  performed.  And,  upon  the 
strength  of  this,  the  youthful  genius  worked  out, 
for  himself,  the  wonderful  Art-form,  which,  since 
its  invention  by  Peri,  has  never  ceased  to  occupy 
the  attention  of  the  greatest  Masters  of  every  suc- 
ceeding School.  And  fortunate  it  was  that  he  was 
left  to  work  it  out  entirely  by  himself.  For,  though 
built  upon  the  true  dramatic  principle.  Dido  and 
Maeas  is  English,  to  the  back-bone.  The  misfor- 
tune was,  that  Enghsh  audiences  were  not  prepared 
for  works  of  so  advanced  a  character.  This  fact  is 
certain — for  Purcell  never  wrote  another.  For  a 
long  time  after  this,  he  was  occupied  in  producing 
incidental  Music  for  Dryden's  Aurenge-Zehe,  Mrs 
Behn's  Abdelazor,  Shakespere's  Timon  of  Athens, 
and  Shadwell's  Libertine — founded  on  Tirso  de 
Molina's  ghastly  Romance,  El  Gonvidado  de  Piedra, 
so  cleverly  treated  by  Moliere,  and  destined  even- 
tually to  form  the  ground -work  of  Mozart's  II  Don 
Giovanni.  These  works  were  not  Operas  :  but  they 
included  some  of  the  most  beautiful  Music  that 
Purcell  ever  wrote  ;  Airs,  and  Choruses,  which  have 
never  been  forgotten. 

In  1680,  Dr.  Blow,  the  most  generous  of  men, 
vacated  his  post  of  Organist  at  Westminster  Abbey, 


1 82  Pur  cell's  Te  Dettm  and  Jubilate,  [a.d.  1694. 

in  favour  of  his  talented  pupil ;  and,  for  some  years 
after  this,  Purcell  devoted  his  attention  entirely  to 
Sacred  Music — a  measure  rendered  the  more 
necessary  by  his  succession,  in  1682,  to  Edward 
Low's  appointment  of  Organist  at  the  Chapel  Royal. 
In  this  branch  of  Art  he  was  as  much  in  advance  of 
the  age  as  in  his  Music  for  the  Theatre.  His  Ser- 
vices and  Anthems,  though  marked  by  a  gravity  of 
style  which  could  only  have  been  dictated  by  a 
devout  appreciation  of  their  intended  purpose,  dis- 
play a  boldness  of  invention  for  which  we  search  in 
vain  in  the  works  of  the  best  of  his  contemporaries. 
Sebastian  Bach  was  ten  years  and  eight  months 
old,  on  the  day  of  Purcell' s  death.  The  English 
Master,  can,  therefore,  have  borrowed  nothing  from 
him.  Yet,  in  Purcell' s  Anthem,  0  give  thanks,  we 
find  the  Diminished  4th  used  with  an  effect  as 
pathetic  as  that  which  Bach  draws  from  it  in  his 
Passion  Music.  In  his  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  com- 
posed for  S.  C 86 cilia's  Day,  1694 — the  first  ever 
written,  to  English  words,  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniments— his  treatment  of  the  discords  struck 
by  the  Trumpets  equals  in  boldness  the  most  ad- 
vanced passages  of  our  modern  Schools.  And  the 
national  taste  must  have  been  ripe  for  the  produc- 
tions of  his  genius ;  for  this  great  work  was  after- 
wards sung,  for  eighteen  years  successively,  at  S.  " 
Paul's  Cathedral,  on  the  '  Festival  of  the  Sons  of 


A.D.  1694.]         PurcelVs  Anthems.  183 

the  Clergy.'  We  have  spoken  of  an  Air,  with 
Trumpet  obhligato,  in  Scarlatti's  Gerone,  written  in 
1692.  Purcell  could  by  no  possibility  have  heard, 
or  known  of  this ;  yet,  the  Jubilate  contains  an 
Alto  Solo,  in  which  the  ohhligato  Trumpet  is  used 
with  even  more  telling  effect. 

It  has  been  said  that  Purcell  sometimes  interprets 
his  text  too  literally  ;  and  the  following  case  is  cited 
as  an  instance  of  this  fault.  The  King,  and  the 
Duke  of  York,  once  made  up  a  yachting  part}^,  to 
sail  round  the  Kentish  coast.  When  off  the  North 
Foreland,  they  were  surprised  by  a  storm,  which 
placed  the  little  vessel  in  such  imminent  danger, 
that  his  Majesty  was  .obliged  to  assist  in  working 
the  sails,  like  a  common  seaman.  One  of  the  party 
— the  Eev.  John  Gostling,  afterwards  Sub-Dean  of 
S.  Paul's — was  so  much  affected  by  the  narrowness 
of  his  escape,  that  he  selected  some  passages  from 
the  Psalms,  and  asked  Purcell  to  set  them  to  Music 
as  a  thank-offering.  Mr.  Gostling's  magnificent 
Bass  voice  comprised  two  full  Octaves,  from  the 
D  above  the  Stave,  to  the  D  below  it.  In  the 
Anthem  in  question — They  that  go  clown  to  the  sea 
in  ships — Purcell  took  advantage  of  this.  Starting 
with  the  upper  D,  he  gradually  descended,  through 
the  whole  range  of  the  Gamut,  to  the  lower  one. 
Of  course,  the  passage  is  open  to  censure,  as  a  too 
reahstic  attempt  to  picture  the  subsidence  of  a  huge 


1 8 4  King  A  rthur,  [ a .  d  .  1 69 1 . 

wave :  but,  those  who  have  heard  it  sung,  as  the 
late  Mr.  Adam  Leffler  used  to  sing  it,  at  West- 
minster Abbey,  will  not  have  failed  to  appreciate 
the  grandeur  of  the  musical  effect. 

Purcell  returned  to  the  composition  of  Dramatic 
Music,  in  1686,  beginning  with  the  Music  for 
Drjden*s  Tyrannic  Love,  This  was  followed,  at 
short  intervals,  by  Music  for  Shakespere's  Tem^;pest, 
Settlers  Distressed  Innocence,  Dryden's  Indian  Queen, 
The  Fairy  Queen,  and  many  others.  All  these  con- 
tain Music  of  the  highest  excellence.  Full  fathom 
five,  and  Come  unto  these  yelloiv  sands,  sound  as 
fresh,  to-day,  as  they  did  when  they  were  heard 
for  the  first  time.  The  Indian  Queen  contains  some 
of  the  best  songs  existing  in  the  English  language. 
But,  greater  than  all  these  is  the  Music  to  Dryden's 
King  AHhur,  composed  in  1691 ;  a  work  which 
threw  the  most  successful  efforts  of  the  best  con- 
temporary composers  completely  into  the  shade, 
and,  in  dramatic  power,  and  grasp  of  scenic  effect, 
approached  more  nearly  to  the  characteristics  of 
the  modern  E-omantic  School  than  anything  that 
appeared  before  the  time  of  Handel.  In  the  famous 
Frost  Scene,  the  shivering  voice  of  the  Genius  of 
Cold  is  contrasted  with  the  bright  tones  of  Cupid 
by  means  of  an  ingenious  expedient  which  could 
only  have  been  imagined  by  a  genius  of  the  highest 
order.    The  flaming  spirit  of  Come  if  you  dare,  has 


A.D.  1695  J  Death  of  Purcell,  185 

invested  it  with  the  po  wer  of  a  ^^Tational  Hymn ;  and 
the  quiet  beauty  of  the  Sirens'  Duet,  Two  daughters 
of  this  aged  stream  are  we,  and  the  song,  Fairest 
Isle,  all  isles  excelling,  can  scarcely  fail  to  render 
them  immortal. 

In  Purcell's  case,  as  in  that  of  Pelham  Humfrey, 


Fig.  36. 
HENRY  PURCELL. 

(From  a  painting  by  John  Closterman.) 


an  early  death  put  an  end  to  the  hopes  of  the  newly- 
founded  School,  at  the  moment  of  their  brightest 
promise.  He  died,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  on  the 
21st  of  November,  1695,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  near  the  foot  of  a  pillar  bearing  the 
often-quoted  inscription, — 

Here  lyes  Henry  Purcell,  Esq. ;  who  left  tins  life,  and  is  gone 


i86 


PurcelF s  Successors,  [a.d.  i  695-1 710. 


to  that  blessed  place  where  only  his  harmony  can  be  exceeded. 
Obiit  21  mo  die  jS'ovembris,  Anno  ^tatis  suae  37""°,  annoq : 
Domini,  1695. 

A  great  number  of  Purcell's  works  were  published, 
after  bis  death,  by  his  widow ;  among  others,  a 
valuable  collection  of  Songs,  and  other  Music,  col- 
lected chiefly  from  his  dramatic  works,  and  printed, 
in  two  books,  in  1698,  and  1702,  under  the  title  of 
Orpheus  Britannicus,  The  volumes — reprinted  in 
1706,  1711,  and  1721 — were  graced  with  a  portrait 
painted  by  John  Closterman,  and  engraved  by  White, 
of  which  we  here  present  our  readers  with  a  repro- 
duction. 

We  have  spoken  of  a  third  set  of  Choristers, 
worthy  followers  of  those  who  first  graced  the 
restoration  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  One  of  the  most 
talented  of  these  was  Jeremiah  Clarke,  whose  Verse- 
Anthem,  How  long  idlt  tliou  forget  me  ?  is  one  of 
the  most  pathetic  compositions  of  the  period.  In 
1693,  Dr.  Blow,  noble-hearted  as  ever,  resigned,  in 
his  favour,  the  appointment  of  Master  ol  the  Chil- 
dren, at  S.  Paul's  Cathedral.  But  the  fatal  destiny 
which  seemed  inseparable  from  the  School  was  upon 
him ;  and  he,  too,  died  a  melancholy  death,  before 
he  had  reached  his  prime.  His  school-fellow.  Dr. 
Croft,  became  one  of  the  best  composers  of  Cathe- 
dral Music  that  the  following  century  could  boast, 
producing  works  for  which  his  name  is  still  famous, 


A.D.  1695-1 710.]  PurceU's  Successors.  187 

and  to  whicli  we  still  listen  with  never-failing 
pleasure.  The  work  was  carried  on  by  a  large  body 
of  accomplished  Musicians,  who,  though  educated 
in  other  Choirs,  nearly  all  became  Gentlemen  of 
the  Chapel  Royal  in  later  life.  One  of  them,  Dr. 
Boyce,  rendered  good  service  by  editing,  between 
the  years  1760,  and  1778,  a  splendid  collection  of 
'  Cathedral  Music,'  which  differed  from  that  for- 
merly pubhshed  by  Barnard,  in  that  it  was  printed 
in  Score,  instead  of  in  separate  Parts.  Good  work 
was  also  done  by  Dr.  Maurice  Greene,  Dr.  James 
Nares,  John  Gold  win,  John  Weld  on,  and  three 
talented  Clergymen,  Drs.  Holder,  Creyghton,  and 
Aldrich,  the  last  of  whom  enriched  the  Library  of 
Christchurch,  Oxford,  with  innumerable  musical 
treasures. 

The  names  of  these  worthies  are  still  venerated 
in  every  Cathedral  Choir  in  England ;  and,  by 
their  earnest  efforts,  and  sincere  love  for  Art,  the 
traditions  of  the  School  of  the  Restoration  were 
kept  alive,  in  England,  until  the  arrival  of  Handel, 
in  the  year  1710. 


END  OF  BOOK  THE  THlliD. 


BOOK  THE  FOURTH. 

MUSIC  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


THE    CONDITION    OF    MUSIC,    IN    ITALY,    DURING  THE 
EARLIER  YEARS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

After  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
History  of  Art  no  longer  records  the  production  of 
works  remarkable  only  for  their  comparative  ex- 
cellence— the  achievements  of  composers  who,  apart 
from  their  intrinsic  merit,  claim  our  admiration,  on 
the  ground  that  tbey  were  in  advance  of  their  age. 
The  period  upon  the  history  of  which  we  are  now 
about  to  enter  produced  works  which  can  never 
grow  old  :  gave  birth  to  composers  whose  genius 
was  not  merely  great,  in  relation  to  the  talent 
displayed  by  contemporary  writers,  but,  so  truly 
great,  in  itself,  that  we  cannot  conceive  the  time  in 
which  it  will  be  forgotten. 

Of  such  composers  as  these — representative  men, 
whose  genius  has  left  an  indelible  impression  upon 
the  annals  of  Art — intellectual  giants,  whose  labours 
have  laid  the  foundation  whereon  rest  the  pillars  of 
her  inmost  Sanctuary — of  such  composers  as  these, 


192  Antonio  Lottt.    [a.d.  1667-1740. 

the  world  has  known  but  seven  :  and,  of  those 
seven,  all,  save  one,  belong  to  the  eventful  period 
we  are  now  considering.  Palestrina,  as  we  already 
know,  lived,  and  died,  in  the  sixteenth  century ; 
but,  Handel,  Sebastian  Bach,  Gluck,  Haydn,  Mozart, 
and  Beethoven,  were  true  children  of  the  eighteenth. 
It  is  true,  that  two  of  them  outlived  it,  and  that 
one  produced  a  long  series  of  his  finest  compositions 
after  its  close :  but  we  are  none  the  less  justified 
in  saying  that  they  wrought  their  great  life-work 
within  its  bounds.  And,  the  life-work  of  the  seven 
bright  luminaries  we  have  mentioned  represents 
all  that  is  greatest  and  noblest  in  every  domain  of 
Art ;  from  the  most  stupendous  compositions  for 
the  service  of  the  Church,  to  the  simplest  Chamber 
Music  we  possess  ;  from  the  grandest  of  Oratorios, 
to  the  Comic  Operetta ;  from  the  Concerto  which 
taxes  the  utmost  skill  of  our  most  accomplished 
Virtuosi^  to  the  Minuet  that  forms  the  child's  first 
lesson  on  the  Piano-forte. 

Let  us  see  how  the  opening  decads  of  the 
eighteenth  century  prepared  the  way  for  the  glories 
of  its  maturity. 

The  Venetian  Dramatic  School  did  not  soon  forget 
the  lessons  it  had  received  from  the  fathers  of  the 
Opera.  Legrenzi's  favourite  pupil,  Antonio  Lotti, 
[1667 — 1740],  invested  the  masterly  form  of  treat- 
ment practised  by  Scarlatti  with  a  melodious  grace. 


A.D.  1678-1736.]  Antonio  Caldar a,  193 

so  *  modern  '  in  character,  tliat  some  of  bis  most 
flowing  Movements — such  as  tlie  beautiful  Aria, 
Tut  dicesti,  and  a  few  pieces  of  Sacred  Music — are 
still  regarded  as  standard  compositions,  and,  as  such, 
constantly  reprinted,  both  in  England,  and  on  the 
Continent.  Between  the  years  1693,  and  1717,  he 
composed  seventeen  Operas,  nearly  all  of  which 
were  successful.  In  September  1717,  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Saxony  invited  him  to  Dresden,  where,  in 
the  short  space  of  two  years,  he  produced  Ascanio, 
Teofane,  and  Glove  ed  Argo,  at  the  Court  Theatre, 
and  composed,  among  other  sacred  pieces,  a  Mass, 
the  eight-part  Criicifixus  of  which  is  undoubtedly 
his  finest  work.  In  1736,  he  was  elected  Maestro 
di  Ga]p;pella  at  S.  Mark^s  ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  he 
was  commissioned,  by  the  Venetian  Republic,  to 
compose,  in  honour  of  the  Doge's  betrothal  with 
the  Adriatic,  the  famous  Madrigale  per  il  Bucintoro, 
entitled  Sjpirto  di  Dto,  an  old  MS.  copy  of  which  is 
preserved  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  College  of  Music. 

Antonio  Caldara  [1678 — 1736]  studied  under 
Legrenzi  simultaneously  with  Lotti,  to  w^hom  he 
was  in  no  respect  inferior  as  a  composer  either  for 
the  Church,  or  for  the  Stage.  In  17 J  4  he  was 
appointed  Maestro  di  Cappella^  at  Mantua ;  and,  four 
years  later,  the  Emperor  Charles  YI.  honoured  him 
with  a  similar  appointment  at  Vienna,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  died  in  1736.    He  wrote  sixty-nine 

o 


194  Benedetto  Marcello,  [a.d.  1686-1739. 

Operas,  of  wliich  the  most  successful  Avas  Temistocle. 
His  finest  composition  for  the  Church  is  a  Criicifixus, 
for  sixteen  voices ;  but  the  best  known  is  a  Confitebor, 
of  which  the  verse  Sanctum  et  terribile,  for  Soprano 
Solo,  is  strikingly  beautiful. 

Lotti  was  more  fortunate  than  Caldara,  in  his 
pupils,  of  whom  two,  at  least,  became  famous.  One 
of  these,  Baldassare  Galuppi,  [1706 — 1786],  has  left 
behind  him  fifty-four  Operas,  five  of  which  were 
written  in  a  single  year.  His  works  were  popular 
in  every  capital  in  Europe  :  but  his  fame  has  proved 
less  enduring  than  that  of  his  fellow  pupil,  Benedetto 
Marcello,  [1686—1739],  one  of  the  most  delightful 
composers  of  the  Venetian  School.  His  Paraphrase 
of  the  first  fifty  Psalms,  for  one,  two,  three,  and 
four  voices,  published,  in  eight  volumes,  in  1724 — 
1727,  is  a  work  which  can  never  be  forgotten;  an 
embodiment  of  all  the  best  features  of  the  School ; 
ineffably  graceful ;  melodious,  in  the  best  sense  of 
the  word;  and  abounding  in  beauties  which  have 
led  to  its  frequent  republication,  while  innumerable 
contemporaneous  productions  are  still  suffered  to 
remain  in  MS.  Marcello  also  composed  Operas,  and 
Oratorios,  to  lihretti  of  his  own :  and  his  just  ap- 
preciation of  the  dignity  of  the  Musical  Drama  is 
proved  by  his  pamphlet  11  Teatro  alia  Moda  (Venice, 
1720),  in  which  the  prevalent  abuses  of  the  time 
are  severely  satirised. 


A.D.  1655-1730.]  Agostino  Steffani,  195 

Another  great  composer,  educated  ia  the  Venetian 
School,  though  domiciled  for  many  years  at  Hanover, 
was  Agostino  Steffani,  [1655 — 1730]  ;  a  man  of 
great  and  varied  attainments,  equally  remarkable  as 
a  Musician,  a  Statesman,  and  an  Ecclesiastic.  His 
dramatic  works  are  written  in  a  bold  and  masterly 
style,  manifesting  a  far  clearer  appreciation  of  the 
capabilities  of  the  Stage  than  that  displayed  by  many 
whose  productions  attained  a  wide-spread  popularity : 
and  his  Sacred  Music  is  admirable.  A  large  col- 
lection of  his  Operas,  composed  for  the  Court  Theatre 
at  Hanover,  and  brought  to  England  by  the 
Elector,  is  now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Buckingham 
Palace.  But  Steffani  is  best  known  by  his  delightful 
Duetti  da  Camera,  in  which  the  two  voices  are 
treated  with  a  skill  beyond  all  praise.  In  this 
branch  of  Art  he  had  but  one  worthy  rival,  Giovanni 
Carlo  Maria  Clari,  of  Bologna,  [1669—1745  ?],  whose 
vocal  Duets  are  as  delicious  as  his  own.  A  large 
collection  of  Clari' s  works  will  be  found,  in  MS.,  in 
the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  at  Cambridge. 

The  Venetian  School  also  produced  a  number  of 
talented  Organists,  and  other  Virtuosi,  who,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  Girolamo  Frescobaldi,  [1587 — • 
1640],  not  only  played  with  skill,  but  wrote  ad- 
mirable Music  for  their  favourite  instruments.  But, 
in  this  branch  of  Art,  Venice  did  not  stand  alone ; 
for  the  Schools  of  Rome,  and  Naples,  produced 

o  2 


196  A7'cangello  Core  Hi.  [a.d.  1653-1713 

two  of  the  greatest  instrumental  performers  of 
the  eighteenth  century — CorelH,  the  Yiolinist,  and 
Domenico  Scarlatti,  whose  achievements  on  the 
Harpsichord  astonished  his  contemporaries  as  much 
as  those  of  Liszt  astonished  the  Virtuosi  of  forty 
years  ago, 

Arcangelo  Corelli,  [1653 — 1713]  was  born  at 
Fusignano,  but,  after  the  year  1681,  settled  per- 
manently in  Rome,  where  he  found  a  happy  home 
in  the  Palace  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  whose  Monday 
evening  Concerts  he  conducted,  until  the  year  of  his 
death.  His  Violin-playing  was  characterised  by  a 
refinement  of  taste  which  no  other  performer  of 
the  day  succeeded  even  in  approaching  ;  and  the 
same  precious  quality  still  renders  his  compositions 
delightful,  in  an  age  in  which  his  technical  power 
would  be  regarded  as  infantine — for,  he  never  ex- 
tended his  passages  beyond  the  third  position.  His 
Concerti  Grossi,  [Rome,  1712],  and  his  five  sets  of 
Sonate,  [Rome,  and  Bologna,  1683 — 1700] — works 
which  no  Violinist  of  oar  own  day  can  afford  to 
ignore — extended  his  reputation  to  every  country 
in  Europe;  and  his  amiable  disposition,  and  never- 
failing  courtesy,  made  him  an  universal  favourite. 
The  Pfalz-Graf,  Johann  Wilhelm,  was  his  intimate 
friend,  and  created  him  Marquess  of  Ladensburg. 

What  Corelli  did  for  the  Violin,  Domenico 
Girolamo   Scarlatti,    [1683 — 1757],   did    for  the 


A.D.  1 683-1 7 5 7. J  Domemco  Scarlatti, 


197 


Harpsichord.  It  is  only  natural  to  believe  that  he 
inherited  his  transcendent  talent  from  his  father, 
the  great  Alessandro,  though  he  developed  it  in  a 
very  different  direction.  He  did,  indeed,  write 
Operas,  and  very  successful  ones :  but  his  chief 
attention  vras  devoted  to  the  Organ,  and  the 
Harpsichord ;  and,  for  the  last-named  instrument, 
he  cultivated  an  entirely  new  style,  refined,  and 
beautiful,  to  the  last  degree,  but  abounding  in 
dijSficulties  so  formidable,  that  the  best  executants 
of  the  present  day  find  the  demands  of  more  than 
one  of  his  compositions  only  just  within  the  bounds 
of  possibility — a  fact  which  will  be  fully  appreciated 
by  those  who  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  hear 
Madame  Schumann's  magnificent  interpretation  of 
his  Sonata  in  A — L' Event  ail — in  which  the  device 
of  crossing  the  hands  is  used  with  strikingly  beautiful 
effect,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  a  reckless  dis- 
regard of  technical  convenience  which  renders  the 
interpretation  of  the  work,  by  performers  of  moderate 
attainments,  simply  impossible. 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak,  again,  both  of 
Corelli,  and  Domenico  Scarlatti,  when  treating  of 
the  early  career  of  Handel ;  we  shall  therefore  leave 
them,  at  present,  to  speak  of  the  vocal  composers 
who  laboured  with  them  for  the  general  advancement 
of  Art. 

Of  Alessandro    Scarlatti,   the  founder   of  the 


Leonardo  Leo.    [a.d.  i  694-1 746. 


Neapolitan  Dramatic  School,  we  liave  already  spoken, 
in  a  previous  chapter.  His  two  most  famous  pupils 
were,  Gaetano  Greco,  and  Durante.  The  first  of 
these  was  chiefly  celebrated  as  a  teacher,  and  num- 
bered some  of  the  best  composers  of  the  age  among 
his  pupils.  Francesco  Durante  [1684 — 1755]  was 
a  highly  accomplished  Musician,  and  one  of  the  best 
writers  of  the  age.  He  did  not,  however,  shine  in 
dramatic  composition,  but,  from  a  very  early  period, 
neglected  the  Stage,  in  order  to  devote  his  full 
attention  to  the  composition  of  Sacred  Music,  which 
he  wrote  with  grace,  tempered  with  true  dignity  of 
style. 

Another  of  Scarlatti's  pupils,  Emanuele  d'  Astorga, 
[1681 — 1736],  has  left,  among  numerous  other  works, 
a  Stahat  Mater  of  great  beauty,  composed,  in  1713, 
for  the  '  Society  of  Antient  Musick  '  in  London. 

Scarlatti's  fourth  great  pupil,  Leonardo  Leo, 
[1694 — 1746],  wrote  in  a  grander  style  than  either 
Astorga,  or  Durante.  His  first  Opera,  Sofonisbe, 
produced,  with  success,  in  1719,  was  followed  by 
nearly  fifty  others,  of  which  the  most  popular  were 
L'OUmpiadey  and  Bemofoonte — the  last  written  for 
the  debut  of  the  famous  Caffarelli.  He  also  wrote 
an  Oratorio — Santa  Elena — numerous  Masses,  and 
many  other  compositions  for  the  Church,  including 
a  Miserere  for  eight  voices,  for  which  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  granted  him  a  noble  pension. 


A.D.  1710-1737.]       Pergolesi.  199 

Though  not  actually  a  pupil  of  Scarlatti,  Francesco 
Feo  [1699—1750  ?]  followed  his  traditions  with 
marked  success,  producing  many  Operas,  the  most 
successful  of  which  were  Ipermestra,  Arianna,  and 
Androw  ache. 

Leonardo  da  Yinci^  [1690 — 1732]  was  a  pupil  of 
Greco.  His  earliest  known  Opera  was  Silla,  pro- 
duced in  1719  ;  but  he  is  believed  to  have  produced 
several  others  before  that  year.  His  style  was 
melodious,  and  his  passages  remarkably  bold  and 
spirited.  Soon  after  the  production  of  his  last 
Opera,  Siface,  he  was  assassinated,  by  means  of  a 
cup  of  poisoned  chocolate. 

The  short  life  of  Giovanni  Battista  Pergolesi 
[1710 — 1737]  supplies  one  of  the  saddest  chapters 
in  the  History  of  Art.  He  too  was  a  pupil  of  Greco, 
under  whom  he  studied  with  an  earnestness  of  pur- 
pose which  enabled  him  to  turn  his  natural  talent  to 
the  best  possible  account.  After  Greco's  death,  he 
continued  his  studies  under  Durante,  Feo,  and  Vinci. 
His  first  composition  was  an  Oratorio — La  Conver- 
sione  di  S.  Guglielmo — performed  in  1731.  His 
first  Opera,  Sallustia,  produced  in  the  same  year, 
was  very  coldly  received.  His  Intermezzo,  Amor  fa 
Vuomo  cieco,  fared  no  better ;  and  his  next  Opera, 
Bicimero,    failed   miserably.    All   these  disasters 

^  Often  ignorantly  mistaken  for  the  great  Painter  Lionardo  da 
Vinci,  who  was  also  an  accomplished  musical  dilettante. 


200  Logrosczno.      [a.d.  i  700-1 763. 

happened  in  the  year  1731 ;  yet,  in  the  winter  of 
that  same  year,  he  had  the  courage  to  write  another 
Intermezzo — La  serva  padrona — which  met  with 
but  very  moderate  success,  during  the  composer's 
Hfe-time,  but,  after  his  death,  was  received  with 
acclamation  at  every  great  Opera  House  in  Europe. 
Between  this  year,  and  1735,  he  wrote  eight  more 
dramatic  pieces,  which  were  very  unfairly  treated  at 
the  time,  though,  after  his  death,  they  became  ex- 
ceedingly popular.  In  1735  he  wrote  his  exquisitely 
beautiful  Stabat  Mater,  for  two  voices ;  and,  for 
this,  he  received  ten  ducats,  (about  11.  15s.). 
He  was  engaged,  at  the  same  time,  on  another 
Opera — Olimjpiade — which  failed,  at  Eome,  like 
the  rest,  and  nearly  broke  the  composer's  heart. 
His  health  was  then  so  broken  that  he  could  scarcely 
add  the  last  touches  to  the  Stabat  Mater :  but  he 
finished  it,  early  in  1736 ;  and  died,  a  few  days 
afterwards,  neglected  by  an  ungrateful  public,  which, 
before  the  close  of  the  year,  was  not  ashamed  to 
admit  that  he  was  the  greatest  composer  of  the  age 
— as  he  most  certainly  was. 

To  another  great  Neapolitan  composer,  Nicolo 
Logroscino  [1700 — 1763]  Dramatic  Music  is  in- 
debted for  an  invention  which  has  tended,  more 
than  any  other,  to  increase  its  grandeur,  and  develop 
its  most  precious  resources  ;  for,  it  is  incontestibly 
proved  that  he  first  substituted,  for  the  simple  Duet 


A.D.  1 74 1 -1 8 1 5.]  Paisiello, 


201 


or  Trio  witli  which  each  Act  was  expected  to  con- 
clude, the  grander  form  now  known  as  the  Concerted 
Finale — a  composition  consisting  of  a  long  chain  of 
movements,  for  several  voices,  strengthened  by  a 
Chorus,  and  developed  with  all  the  Art  at  the 
composer's  disposal.  Logroscino's  own  works  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  very  great :  but,  his  inven- 
tion was  priceless ;  and,  though  he  himself  only 
nsed  it  for  the  Opera  hiiffa,  it  has  led  to  the  grandest 
effects  produced  in  every  form  of  Opera  since  the 
genius  of  Mozart  first  showed  the  unlimited  range 
of  its  power. 

Contemporary  with  Logroscino  was  Nicolo  Jomelli, 
[1714 — 1774],  a  composer  whose  tender  and  pathetic 
style  rendered  him  exceedingly  popular,  both  in 
Italy,  and  in  Germany,  and  obtained  for  him  the 
important  post  of  Kapellmeister  at  Stuttgart. 

Jomelli  cultivated  Sacred  and  Dramatic  Music 
with  equal  effect.  His  successor,  Giovanni  Paisiello, 
[1741 — ]  815],  showed  his  true  greatness  most  clearly 
on  the  Stage,  and  attained  a  reputation  so  enduring, 
that  his  best  Opera,  11  Barhiere  di  Siviglia,  produced, 
at  S.  Petersburg,  in  1777,  was  only  displaced,  with 
great  difficulty,  in  1816,  to  make  room  for  Rossini's 
masterpiece  of  the  same  name. 

Of  Gasparo  Sacchini,  [1734—1786],  Pietro  Gu- 
glielmi,  [1727 — 1804],  and  their  immediate  followers, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  in  detail,  since  they 


202 


Nicolo  Porp07^a.  [a.d.  i 686-1 766. 


contributed  but  little  towards  the  true  progress 
of  Dramatic  Art.  Nicolo  Porpora,  [1686 — 1766], 
though  he  died  so  long  before  the  close  of  the 
century,  originated  a  new  point  of  departure  which 
must  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  work 
attempted  by  composers  of  a  very  different  class 
from  those  with  whom  we  are  now  deahng.  For 
the  present,  therefore,  we  must  take  leave  of  the 
Neapolitan  composers,  and  turn  to  those  who 
flourished  in  more  northern  countries. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


THE  CONDITION  OF  iMCSIC,  IN  FRANCE,  ENGLAND,  AND 
GERMANY,  DURING  THE  EARLIER  YEARS  OF  THE 
EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  sudden  death  of  Lulli,  in  1687,  affected  the 
newlj-formed  French  School  less  seriously  than 
might  reasonably  have  been  expected.  In  the 
absence  of  a  composer  strong  enough  to  carry  on 
his  work,  progress  was,  of  course,  impossible.  But 
a  French  audience  entertains  strong  prejudices, 
and,  in  this  case  the  Parisian  public  refused  to  listen 
to  any  kind  of  novelty.  Lulli  monopolised  the 
Stage,  completely,  for  many  years  after  he  had  ceased 
to  live  in  the  flesh.  The  first  serious  attempt  to 
dispute  his  supremacy  was  made  by  Jean  Philippe 
Rameau,  [1683 — 1  764],  a  man  of  high  intellectual 
attainments,  who  first  attracted  attention,  as  a  clever 
theorist,  by  the  publication,  in  1722,  of  his  Traite 
de  VHarmonie — a  work,  which,  though  long  since 
superseded,  contained  so  much  vital  truth,  that  it 
was  adopted,  as  an  infallible  text-book,  by  many 
generations  of  earnest  students. 


204  Rameau,        [a.d.  1683-1764. 

In  1733,  Rameau,  then  fifty  years  old,  clianged 
his  ground,  and  produced  his  first  Opera,  ffip- 
jpolyte  et  Aricie,  at  the  Academie.  So  cold  was 
its  reception,  that  he  was  charged  with  having 
mistaken  his  vocation.  But,  so  far  was  he  from 
committing  this  error,  that  he  produced  twenty- 
eight  more  Operas,  and  other  dramatic  pieces,  within 
the  ensuing  twenty  years ;  and  every  one  of  these 
was  successful,  while  some,  such  as  Dardanus,  Castor 
et  Pollux,  and  La  Princesse  de  Navarre,  were  re- 
ceived with  acclamation.  In  process  of  time,  Rameau 
was  acknowledged  as  Lulli's  legitimate  successor  ; 
but  he  still  had  opponents,  who  afterwards  quar- 
relled, under  the  name  of  huffonistes,  with  the  anti- 
huffonistes  who  aided  his  attempt  to  strengthen  the 
foundations  of  the  National  Dramatic  School.^ 

Eameau  was  a  much  better  Musician  than  Lulli, 
and  wrote  in  a  much  fuller  and  more  dignified  style. 
His  orchestral  accompaniments  were  more  effective, 
as  well  as  more  original,  than  those  of  any  previous 
writer  of  his  School ;  and  to  this  circumstance  we 
must  attribute  the  fact  that  his  works  retained  their 
hold  upon  the  Parisian  public,  until  the  arrival  of 
Gluck,  in  1774. 

While  the  French  School  was  gradually  approach- 
ing a  higher  degree  of  perfection,  English  Musicians 

^  The  term,  bvjfoniste,  was  adopted  in  allusion  to  the  Italian 
Opera  buffa,  as  opposed  to  the  French  Grand  Opera. 


A.D.  1677-1736.]  English  Cathedral  Composers »  205 

were  not  forgetful  of  their  duty.  It  is  true  that 
Henry  Purcell  left  no  successor  strong  enough  to 
carry  on  satisfactorily  the  work  he  had  so  deeply  at 
heart,  aud  yet  was  fated  to  leave  unfinished.  His 
early  death  left  the  School  of  the  Restoration  with- 
out a  leader ;  but,  even  in  its  orphaned  condition, 
it  kept  alive  the  traditions  of  its  most  brilHant 
period.  Men  like  Dr.  Maurice  Greene  [1690 — 
1755],  Dr.  William  Croft,  [1677—1727],  John 
Weldon  \0h,  1786],  and  many  others  entitled  to 
a  rank  not  very  far  below  them,  worked  earnestly 
for  the  good  cause,  doing  their  best  to  place  the 
English  School  upon  a  firm  and  enduring  foundation, 
and  preserving  its  individuality  so  completely  that 
the  most  salient  characteristics  of  the  national  style 
were  never  suffered  to  lapse,  either  in  the  Church, 
or  the  Theatre.  This  was  a  most  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance for  England ;  for,  the  preservation  of  the 
traditional  style  naturally  prevented  the  deteriora- 
tion of  the  national  taste,  and  thus  it  happened, 
that,  when  a  great  Leader  did  at  last  appear,  he  was 
able  to  take  np  the  work  where  he  found  it,  and, 
supported  by  the  approval  of  a  sympathetic  audience, 
to  lead  it  upward  to  heights  till  then  undreamed  of, 
without  introducing  the  jarring  elements  of  a  new  and 
foreign  style. 

In  Germany,  the  early  labours  of  the  Bach  Family 
were  nobly  supplemented  by  the  efforts  made  by  two 


2o6  y.  y,  Fux.      [a.d.  1660-1741. 

Musicians,  of  extraordinary  talent,  whose  natural 
bias  led  them  in  very  opposite  directions. 

Johann  Joseph  Fux  [1660 — 1741]  was  a  zealous 
follower  of  the  School  of  Palestrina.  His  Missa 
canonica  (Vienna,  1718)  is  a  miracle  of  contrapuntal 
skill,  and  yet  pervaded  by  a  grandeur  of  style  which 
completely  masks  the  almost  incredible  ingenuity 
of  its  subtle  devices.  As  a  general  rule,  his  Church 
Music  is  not  of  so  complicated  a  character  as  this ; 
but  it  is  always  remarkable  for  a  breadth  of  design, 
and  a  reverence  of  intention,  thoroughly  worthy  of 
its  high  object.  He  is  known  to  have  written  nearly 
three  hundred  pieces  of  Church  Music,  and  eighteen 
Operas,  besides  many  less  important  works,  most  of 
which  still  remain  in  MS.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
upon  his  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  printed  at  Vienna, 
in  1725,  and  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
— a  treatise  in  which  the  Art  of  Counterpoint,  as 
practised  by  the  Great  Masters  of  the  16th  century, 
is  explained  with  a  clearness  for  which  we  seek  in 
vain  in  other  works  written  with  similar  intentions. 
That  the  Gradus  ad  Parnassum  is  the  most  valuable 
treatise  on  Counterpoint  that  ever  was  written  is 
sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  has  served 
for  the  instruction  of  the  greatest  Masters  of  modern 
times,  including  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven. 

Karl  Heinrich  Graun  [1701 — 1759]  also  devoted 
his  chief  attention  to  Church  Music,  of  which  he  has 


A.D.  1 701-1759.]         Graun.  207 

left  some  very  fine  examples.  He  was  first  brought 
into  notice,  as  a  Boy,  by  a  Soprano  Voice  of  ravish- 
ing beauty,  which  led  to  his  appointment,  in  1713, 
as  Baths-discantist,  or  Treble-Singer  to  the  Town 
Council,  at  Dresden.  In  1740,  he  was  appointed 
EajQellmeister  at  Berlin,  by  Frederick  the  Great ;  a,nd, 
in  this  capacity,  he  wrote  nearly  thirty  Operas, 
the  last  of  which — Merope — was  produced  in  1756. 
But  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  Sacred  Music  ; 
and,  especially,  upon  his  Te  Deum — first  performed 
at  Charlottenburg,  in  1763,  to  celebrate  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Thirty  Years'  War — and  his  Oratorio,  Der 
Tod  Jesu,  first  sung,  in  the  Cathedral  at  Berlin,  in 
1755,  and,  since  then,  annually  performed,  in  the 
same  Church,  during  Holy  Week.  This  last  work  is 
of  the  highest  excellence,  and  may  be  safely  ranked 
as  second  in  merit  only  to  the  master-pieces  of 
Handel,  and  Sebastian  Bach. 

We  see,  then,  that  neither  in  Italy,  nor  in  France, 
in  England,  nor  in  Germany,  was  the  great  work  of 
progress  for  a  moment  interrupted.  The  great 
Polyphonic  School  was  dead.  But  a  new  one  had 
arisen  upon  its  ruins.  And  the  new  order  of  things, 
first  introduced  in  the  year  1600,  was  steadily  work- 
ing out  a  mission  far  exceeding  in  its  brilliancy  the 
wildest  hopes  of  those  who  contributed  most  gene- 
rously towards  its  fulfilment. 


CHAPTER  XVIIT. 


OIS  THE  ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE  MODERN  SYSTEM 
OF  PART-WRITING. 

Before  proceeding  farther  with  the  narrative  portion 
of  our  history,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  clearly 
define  the  technical  change  through  which  the  new 
musical  system  introduced  by  the  leaders  of  the 
Monodic  School,  in  the  year  1600,  was  fated  to  pass, 
in  order  to  render  the  brilliant  triumphs  of  the  18th 
century  possible. 

Though,  in  their  lighter  moments,  neither  Fux, 
nor  Graun,  disdained  to  conform  to  the  popular 
taste  of  their  time,  though  they  did  not  think  it 
beneath  their  dignity  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of 
their  Imperial  and  Royal  patrons,  by  cultivating 
Italian  Opera,  in  its  newest  and  lightest  phases,  it  was 
clear  that  they  did  not  adopt  this  course  without 
doing  a  certain  amount  of  violence  to  their  own 
natural  instincts.  In  their  heart  of  hearts,  they 
cared  only  for  Choral  Music,  of  the  grandest  and 
noblest  order.     But,  they  did  not  both  love  the 


I  8th  Century.]  Modern  Part-writi7ig,  209 

same  kind  of  Choral  Music.  Tlieir  tastes,  and  their 
studies,  led  tliem  towards  the  opposite  poles  of  Art. 
Carrying  out  the  same  principles  in  their  Chamber 
Music,  and  in  that  written  for  the  Theatre,  they  repre- 
sented, in  Choral  Music,  two  noble  Schools  between 
which  no  bond  of  sympathy  could,  by  any  possibility  be 
established.  And  their  methods  of  working  differed 
as  widely  as  their  tastes. 

Fux  was  the  greatest  Contrapuntist  of  his  age. 
Graun  devoted  his  whole  attention  to  the  Art  of 
modern  Part- Writing.  Fux's-  Gradus  ad  Parnassum 
sets  forth,  in  the  clearest  possible  language,  the 
system  pursued  by  the  Great  Masters  of  the 
Golden  Age ;  teaches  us  the  principles  upon  which 
Palestrina  worked ;  tells  us  all  we  need  to  know  of 
the  wonderful  system  which  underlies  the  technical 
basis  of  the  Missa  Papce  MarcelU — the  work,  which, 
for  him,  embodied  all  that  was  noblest  and  most 
beautiful  in  Art.  For  Graun,  the  perfection  of  Art 
was  represented  by  the  noble  treatment  of  a  Choral. 
And  a  Choral  is  most  grandly  treated,  not  in  Counter- 
point, but  in  Part-Writing.  The  looseness  of  modern 
language  has  led  to  some  confusion  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  two  systems.  Critics  sometimes  speak 
of  Strict  and  Free  Counterpoint.  But,  all  Counter- 
point is  of  necessity  strict.  Part-writing  alone  is 
free.  Free,  not  in  the  sense  of  exemption  from  rule 
— for  its  laws  are  as  rigid  as  those  of  Counterpoint; 

p 


2IO  Modern  Part-writing,  [i 8th  Century. 

but,  free  from  certain  ordinances  in  the  absence  of 
which  Counterpoint  could  not  exist. 

While  Counterpoint  permits  the  use  of  Discords  of 
Transition  and  Suspension  only,  and  rigidly  excludes 
the  Chromatic  Genus,  in  all  its  phases,  Part-Writing, 
as  practised  by  the  Great  Masters  of  the  modern 
School,  permits  the  use  of  all  Discords,  of  Appog- 
giaturas  of  every  kind,  and  of  Chromatic  Intervals, 
and  Progressions,  both  in  Melody,  and  Harmony. 
But,  these  Progressions  are  all  subject  to  rule.  The 
method  of  treating  every  Discord  is  strictly  laid  down. 
Nay,  some  of  the  rules  are  more  inexorable  than 
those  of  Counterpoint.    Palestrina  has  written  Con- 
secutive Fifths,  in  Contrary  Motion,  over  and  over 
again ;  but,  in  modern  Part- Writing,  they  are  con- 
sidered very  vicious.    On  the  other  hand.  Hidden 
Octaves  are  considered  more  disgraceful,  in  Counter- 
point, than  Hidden  Fifths ;  while,  in  modern  Part- 
Writing,  a  whole  passage  may  be  doubled  in  Octaves. 
This  has  arisen,  evidently,  from  the  exigencies  of 
Instrumental  Music ;  and  it  was,  in  fact,  the  in- 
creased attention  given  to  instrumental  accompani- 
ments that  j5rst  led  to  the  substitution  of  the  modern 
form  for  the  older  one. 

The  older  disciples  of  the  Monodic  School  would 
have  none  of  this.  They  cared  no  more  for  Part- 
Writing  than  they  did  for  Counterpoint,  and  knew 
no  more  about  it.    But,  their  prejudices  could  not 


I 8th  Century.]  The  Polyodic  School,  211 

last  for  ever.  Scarlatti,  and  Colonna,  and  Leo,  rose 
above  them ;  and  Graun,  and  Purcell,  and  Eameau, 
set  them  at  naught.  They  could  not  revert  to  the  old 
contrapuntal  system  ;  for  that  was  incompatible  with 
instrumental  accompaniments,  and  instrumental  ac- 
companiments had  become  a  necessity.  They  felt, 
instinctively,  that  Polyphonia  was  dead.  But  they 
could  not  content  themselves  with  the  threadbare 
Monodia  that  Peri  and  Vincenzo  Galilei  would  have 
substituted  for  it.  Something  better  than  that  was 
imperiously  demanded  ;  and  that  better  thing  found 
its  full  expression  in  the  great  Polyodic  School  which 
has  long  been  recognised  as  the  fittest  known  ex- 
ponent of  all  that  is  noblest  and  deepest  in  the  entire 
range  of  modern  musical  thought.  For,  Polyodia  is 
the  true  modern  analogue  of  Polyphonia.  It  ex- 
presses its  ideas,  in  a  greater  or  less  number  of  inde- 
pendent parts,  which  all  work  together  for  the  general 
effect ;  and  it  only  differs  from  the  older  system,  in 
that  it  invites  the  introduction  of  Discords  and 
Progressions  which  that  system  excluded.  And  it 
adapts  itself  to  the  exigencies  of  the  full  Orchestra, 
as  easily  as  to  those  of  the  simplest  Chamber  Music. 
It  is  upon  this  system  that  all  the  composers  of 
whom  we  have  now  to  treat  have  built  their  greatest 
work.  It  did  not  spring  into  existence  in  a  moment, 
but  was  gradually  developed,  as  the  need  for  its  cul- 
tivation became  evident.   Every  really  great  Master 

p  2 


212 


The  Polyodic  School.  [i8th  Century. 


has  turned  it  to  his  own  use,  in  his  own  peculiar 
way ;  and,  by  studying  the  uses  to  which  it  has  been 
most  successfully  applied,  we  shall  best  attain  a  true 
estimate  of  its  value. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  SEVEN  LA:yFS. 

We  have  spoken,  in  a  former  chapter,  of  Seven 
bright  Luminaries,  whose  influence  upon  Art  was 
of  so  enduring  a  character,  that  we  are  justified  in 
describing  it  as  ineffaceable.  It  is  time  that  we 
should  consider  the  points  in  which  the  work  effected 
by  these  immortal  Composers  differs  from  that 
wrought  by  other  men  of  genius  whom  the  world 
justly  regards  with  reverence,  and  all  true  artists 
with  affection.  The  question  is  a  serious  one,  and 
teaches  a  very  important  lesson:  a  lesson  which  may 
very  easily  be,  and  very  often  is,  misunderstood,  to 
an  extent  which  not  only  obscures  its  practical  use- 
fulness, but  substitutes,  for  its  true  logical  conclu- 
sion, a  fatal  error.  No  error  is  so  dangerous  as 
that  which  originates  in  the  specious  misinterpreta- 
tion of  a  great  truth.  Xo thing  can  be  plainer  than 
the  truth  presented  to  us,  in  the  present  case.  Every- 
one knows  that  Palestrina,  Handel,  Bach,  Gluck, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  stand  alone,  among 


2  14    '^^^^  Seven  Great  Compose}' s.    [i8th  Century. 

all  the  composers  who  have  ever  lived.  But,  in 
estimating  their  greatness,  the  student  walks,  like 
the  hero  of  '  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,'  between  '  a 
ditch  on  the  one  side,  and  a  quagmire  on  the  other.' 
It  is  easy  enough  to  under-rate  their  greatness :  it 
is  equally  easy — we  say  it  with  all  due  reverence — 
to  over-estimate  it. 

In  cases  such  as  this,  a  clearly-defined  test  is  price- 
less. Fortunately,  we  possess  a  test,  the  clearness  of 
which  could  scarcely  be  exceeded.  That  works  of 
true  genius — genius  of  the  highest  order — are  '  not 
for  an  age,  but  for  all  time,'  is  an  axiom  which  no 
one  will  be  bold  enough  to  dispute.  Can  we  say 
this  of  the  work  of  any  composer,  other  than  the 
deathless  Seven  ?  We  have  spoken  of  the  extra- 
ordinary genius  of  Josquin  des  Pres.  Could  we 
listen  to  his  Missa  *  Di  dadi,'  at  S.  James's  Hall  ? 
Monteverde  has  claimed  no  small  share  of  our  at- 
tention. Would  the  greatest  Prima  donna  of  the 
age  dare  to  sing  his  Lamento  d^  Arianna,  to-morrow 
night,  at  Covent  Garden?  But,  the  Missa  Fajpce 
Marcelli  delights  us  as  much,  to-day,  as  it  delighted 
the  eight  Cardinals  who  adjudicated  upon  it  more 
than  three  hundred  years  ago.  Che  faro  senz 
Euridice  enthralls  a  modern  audience  as  completely 
as  it  enthralled  Prince  Charles  Edward,  who  never 
could  listen  to  it  without  tears.  The  opening  notes 
of  the  Hallelujah  Chorus  compel  us  to  rise  from  our 


I  8th  Century.]    The  Seven  Great  Co772posers.  215 

seats,  whether  we  will,  or  not.  Three  centuries 
hence,  these  great  works  will  speak  to  the  great 
heart  of  humanity — as  Hamlet^  and  King  Lear,  will 
speak  to  it — in  language  as  forcible  as  that  in  which 
they  address  it  now.  And  this,  for  the  simplest  of 
all  reasons — because  the  principle  upon  which  they 
are  based  is  that  of  absolute  artistic  truth.  Truth 
so  deep,  that  fashion  is  powerless  against  it.  Truth, 
which  asserts  its  prerogative  in  the  face  of  all  styles, 
and  all  Schools,  whatsoever.  The  day  will  come  when 
even  the  Barhiere  itself  will  be  thought  too  '  old- 
fashioned  '  for  patient  endurance  :  but  that  will 
never  be  said  of  the  Messiah,  or  II  Don  Giovanni ; 
of  Fidelio,  or  the  Sonata  appassionata  ;  of  the 
XLVIIL,  or  Iphegenie  en  Tauride,  The  works  of 
many  great  composers  will  live,  and  endure  :  those 
only  of  the  Seven  will  live  for  ever — out-live  all 
others,  as  the  Poems  of  Homer,  and  the  Plays  of 
Shakespere,  will  outlive  Paradise  Lost,  and  Tlie  School 
for  Scandal. 

The  only  test  of  true  greatness — greatness  of  the 
highest  order — is,  immortality.  Originality  cannot 
be  admitted  as  a  proof  of  it.  No  doubt,  it  is  a  very 
striking  quality ;  a  rare  concomitant  of  brilliant 
genius  ;  but  not  a  test  of  truthful  inspiration.  On 
the  contrary,  it  constantly  misleads  both  the  com- 
poser, and  his  critics.  And  this  brings  us  to  the 
dangerous  misconception  to  which  we  have  already 


2i6    The  Seven  Great  Composers,    [i8th  Century. 

alluded — the  danger  of  attributing  to  the  greatest  of 
all  geniuses  a  quality  which  they  did  not  possess, 
and  which,  had  they  endeavoured  to  cultivate  it, 
would  have  quite  certainly  prevented  them  from 
rising  to  the  serene  heights  they  now  occupy.  Para- 
doxical as  this  may  sound,  it  is  susceptible  of  absolute 
proof. 

Peri,  and  Monteverde,  were  more  daring  origina- 
tors than  any  one  of  the  composers  who  are  placed, 
by  critics  of  every  variety  of  opinion,  in  the  highest 
rank  of  all.  The  one  struck  out  a  new  element  in 
composition,  the  other,  a  new  mode  of  treatment, 
such  as  had  never  been  dreamed  of  by  any  older 
Master.  Where  are  they  now  ?  Their  inventions 
still  live,  and  form  the  sure  basis  of  our  most  modern 
system,  as  of  all  systems  that  have  preceded  it  since 
the  year  1600.  But,  who  could  listen  to  their 
works?  Who  could  endure  their  appalling  stiffness? 
their  inanity,  as  compared  with  the  rich  harmony  of 
the  productions  they  displaced?  their  lack  of  glowing 
melody,  of  ingenious  accompaniments,  of  graceful 
expression,  of  everything  that  makes  Music  interest- 
ing, and  beautiful?  And  why  is  til  is?  Because  they 
obstinately  refused  to  believe  in  anything  that  had 
gone  before  them.  Knowing  less  of  Counterpoint 
than  the  youngest  candidate  at  an  examination  for 
musical  honours,  they  insolently  derided  it,  as  an 
absurd  and  useless  hindrance  to  their  flights  of 


i8th  Century.]    The  Seven  Great  Composef^s.  217 

genius.  Form,  as  it  tlien  existed,  they  held  in  equal 
contempt;  and,  having  nothing  better  to  substitute 
for  it,  they  advocated  a  style  of  composition  abso- 
lutely amorphous.  Of  the  precious  legacies  be- 
queathed to  them  by  a  past  generation  they  would 
accept  none.  Trusting  entirely  to  their  own  re- 
sources, they  were  content  to  remain  in  ignorance 
of  the  merest  rudiments  of  technical  science.  And 
so  it  came  to  pass,  that,  with  genius  enough  to 
originate  a  style  till  then  unthought  of,  they  failed, 
through  lack  of  knowledge,  to  bring  it  to  perfec- 
tion :  failed  so  lamentably,  that  not  one  of  their 
productions  outlived  the  century  in  which  it  was 
written. 

The  seven  representative  Composers  followed 
the  opposite  system.  Their  sense  of  artistic  truth 
prompted  them  to  write,  not  that  which  was  new, 
but,  that  which  was  good,  and  beautiful.  Palestrina 
accumulated,  in  his  own  great  mind,  all  the  know- 
ledge that  had  been  acquired  by  his  predecessors. 
Glorifying  the  ingenuity  of  Okenheim,  and  the  learn- 
ing of  Josquin  des  Pres,  with  the  fire  of  his  own 
Heaven-born  genius,  he  wrote  such  Church  Music  as 
has  never  been  written,  before,  or  since.  But,  his 
genius  alone  would  not  have  enabled  him  to  write  it, 
unaided  by  the  experience  of  his  predecessors.  Peri 
created  a  School.  Palestrina  brought  an  already- 
existing  School  to  a  point  of  perfection  which  it  was 


2l8 


The  Seven  Giants.    [i8tii  Century. 


never  destined  to  exceed.  In  the  Art-world  of  to- 
day, Peri's  very  name  is  unknown.  Palestrina's 
will  live  for  ever. 

And  it  was  the  same  with  his  six  great  compeers. 
Handel,  and  Bach,  knew  all  that  could  be  learned 
from  the  work  of  their  predecessors ;  and,  from  the 
knowledge  thus  laboriously  gained,  they  each  evolved 
a  style  of  their  own,  which  style  they  brought  to  a 
state  of  perfection  that  still  remains  unrivalled. 
They  were  as  far  from  instituting  a  new  point  of 
departure  as  Palestrina  was.  They  wrought  perfec- 
tion out  of  already- existing  materials ;  and,  each  in  a 
style  peculiarly  his  own.  So  it  has  ever  been.  There 
is  no  instance  on  record  of  a  style,  starting  from 
an  entirely  new  point  of  departure,  having  been 
fully  developed — developed  to  its  culminating  point 
of  excellence — by  the  genius  who  first  adopted  it  as 
the  basis  of  his  operations.  In  every  case  handed 
down  to  us  by  the  historian,  perfection  has  crowned, 
not  the  labours  of  the  originator,  but  the  genius  of 
a  successor  who  has  entered  into  his  labours. 
Haydn  developed  the  Sonata-Form — the  artistic 
miracle  which  has  immortalised  his  name — from 
the  already-existing  Dance-Tune.  Mozart  was  not 
ashamed  to  work  upon  the  lines  laid  down  by  Haydn. 
Had  he  refused  to  do  so,  he  would  never  have 
given  birth  to  the  Orchestral-Fugue — the  wonderful 
inspiration  which  places  the  Overture  to  Die  Zau- 


t8th  Century. J    The  Seven  Giants.  219 

herjidte,  and  the  Finale  to  the  Jupiter  Symjpliony,  in  a 
category  from  which  all  other  Overtures  and  Sym- 
phonies are  of  necessity  excluded.  By  investing  the 
Sonata-Form  of  Haydn  with  the  Eomantic  Element, 
Beethoven  gave  birth  to  a  style  in  which  he  has 
never  had  a  rival.  The  fact  that  everyone  of  these 
great  writers  entered  into,  and  consummated,  the 
labours  of  other  great  writers  by  whom  they  were 
preceded,  is  patent  to  everyone :  yet,  none  the  less 
were  they  true  geniuses,  original  thinkers,  men  who 
owed  their  success  to  direct  inspiration  from  within. 
No  form  of  imitation,  consciously  or  unconsciously 
cultivated,  ever  reaches  perfection.  To  say  that 
none  of  these  men  were  imitators  would  be  to 
give  expression  to  a  truism.  They  wrought  ori- 
ginal work,  on  foundations  long  established,  as  the 
seed  long  sown  developes  flowers  and  fruit  the  form 
and  beauty  of  which  no  effort  of  prevision  could  have 
conceived.  Without  the  seed,  the  flower  could  never 
spring  into  existence:  and,without  the  study  of  works 
produced  by  his  predecessors,  no  artist  can  produce 
perfect  and  original  works  of  his  own.  So  certain 
were  the  great  composers  of  this,  that  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  before  launching  themselves 
freely  and  fearlessly  on  their  artistic  career,  adopted 
as  the  basis  of  their  contrapuntal  studies,  the 
Gradus  ad  Parnassum  of  Fux ;  the  mirror  of  the 
praxis  of  the  16th  century,  based — strange  to  say  ! 


2  20  The  Seven  Champions.    [i8th  Century. 

— upon  the  old  Ecclesiastical  Modes.  To  propose 
tlie  study  of  these  Modes  to  a  neophyte,  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  would  be  to  incur  the  risk  of  condemnation 
as  an  intolerable  pedant;  and  many  of  us  would 
refuse  to  believe  that  Beethoven  ever  gave  them  a 
thought,  were  it  not  that  his  exercise-books,  still  in 
existence,  afford  incontestible  proof  that  he  studied 
them  in  no  superficial  way,  but  very  energetically  in- 
deed. His  remark,  that  he  learned  rules,  in  order  that 
he  might  know  how  to  break  them,  is  often  quoted  as 
a  proof  that,  where  natural  talent  exists,  rules  may 
be  broken  with  impunity  :  but,  those  who  adopt  this 
view  forget  that  he  learned  the  rules  first,  and  broke 
them  afterwards. 

Having  now  explained,  in  general  terms,  our 
grounds  for  regarding  a  certain  limited  number  of 
Composers,  selected  from  a  large  and  honourable 
company,  as  entitled  to  a  higher  grade  than  that 
accorded  to  any  others  in  the  hierarchy  of  Art — 
having  set  forth  their  claim  to  our  consideration  as 
the  Seven  Champions  of  Music — the  Seven  Lamps 
to  which  her  Temple  owes  its  brightest  radiance — 
we  propose  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  life-work  and 
personal  history  of  each  of  these  bold  Giants,  in  turn. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Palestrina,  and  briefly 
touched  upon  the  chief  events  in  his  long  and  inte- 
resting career.  Let  us  next  proceed  to  do  the  same 
for  Handel. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

GEORGE  FEEDERIGK  HAXDEL. 

George  Frederick  Handel  was  born,  at  Halle,  in 
Saxony,  on  the  23rd  of  February,  1685.^  His 
father,  Meister  Gorge  Handel,^ — a  surgeon,  attached 
to  the  Court  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxony — deter- 
mined to  educate  him  for  the  Law ;  but  the  child's 
passion  for  Music  was  too  strong  to  be  repressed. 
Tractable,  and  obedient,  on  all  other  points,  Georg 
Friedrich  rebelled  against  the  cruel  edict  which 
forbade  him  to  practise  his  beloved  Art.  While 
still  an  infant,  he  obtained  possession  of  a  little 
Clavichord,^  which  he  smuggled  into  a  loft  con- 

^  The  date  recorded  on  his  monument,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
is,  Feb.  23,  1684.  This  statement,  however,  is  incorrect.  For  a 
detailed  account  of  the  source  of  the  error,  see  the  author's  '  Life 
of  Handel.'   (London.    Macmillan  and  Co.  1883.) 

2  The  family  name  is  spelled  in  a  variety  of  ways,  of  which  the 
most  common  is  Haendel,  or  Handel.  The  subject  of  our  memoir 
signed  himself  Handel,  in  Germany;  Hendel,  in  Italy,  and  Handel, 
after  his  final  settlement  in  England. 

^  See  page  145. 


2  22       Under  the  Storks'  Nests,    [a.d.  i 685-1 695. 


structed  in  the  roof  of  tlie  parental  domicile ;  and 
on  this  he  played,  beneath  the  storks'  nests,  with 
little  fear  of  being  overheard  by  the  rest  of  the 
family.  He  had  barely  attained  the  ripe  age  of 
seven,  when  his  father  was  summoned  to  the  Court  of 
the  reigning  Duke  of  Sachse  Weissenfels.  Knowing 
that  there  was  an  Organ  in  the  Chapel  attached  to 
the  Castle,  the  child  entreated  permission  to  accom- 
pany the  worthy  surgeon  on  his  journey.  This  was 
refused.  But  the  son's  will  was  stronger  than  the 
father's  veto.  He  ran  after  the  departing  carriage, 
and  fairly  kept  pace  with  it,  until  it  reached  its  first 
halting-place.  The  parental  heart  was  unable  to 
resist  this  mute  appeal.  Georg  Friedrich  was  taken 
to  Weissenfels.  On  the  following  Sunday,  he 
managed  to  gain  access  to  the  Organ.  The  Duke 
overheard  his  performance;  and,  struck  with  its 
precocious  promise,  exhorted  the  father  not  to  suffer 
so  great  a  natural  talent  to  be  wasted.  The  recom- 
mendation was  equivalent  to  a  command.  The  child 
had  gained  his  end.  On  his  return  to  Halle,  he  was 
placed  under  the  care  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Zachau, 
the  Organist  of  the  Liebfrauenkirche ;  and,  three 
years  later,  the  worthy  professor  confessed  that  his 
pupil  knew  all  that  he  could  teach  him. 

It  would  manifestly  be  impossible,  in  a  work  like 
the  present,  to  trace  the  career  of  even  the  greatest 
Musicians,  step  by  step,  from  their  entrance  into 


A.D.  1704.]       The  Duel  at  Hainbtirg.  223 

life,  to  the  period  at  which  their  genius  reached  its 
culminating  point.  Omitting,  therefore,  many  in- 
teresting events  in  the  early  history  of  Handel,  we 
pass  on  to  the  happy  epoch  at  which  his  power  as  a 
Composer  was  first  publicly  recognised,  at  Ham- 
burg, where  he  temporarily  settled,  in  1703,  in  the 
humble  capacity  of  a  ripieno  second  Violin,  in  the 
Opera  Orchestra,  and  where,  for  some  considerable 
time,  he  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Johann 
Mattheson,  the  principal  Tenor  at  the  Opera,  and 
the  author  of  some  well-known  critical  treatises, 
and  a  biographical  work  called  the  Ehren-P forte. 
Mattheson  was  an  eccentric  character ;  and  his 
ineffable  conceit  led  him  into  a  duel  with  Handel, 
which,  but  for  a  button  which  stopped  the  progress 
of  his  sword,  would  probably  have  ended  seriously 
for  the  latter.  The  quarrel,  however,  was  soon 
adjusted ;  and  that  so  satisfactorily,  that  within 
little  more  than  a  week  after  its  termination, 
Mattheson  sang  the  principal  Tenor  part  in  Handel's 
first  Opera,  Almira. 

Up  to  this  time,  Handel  had  produced  but  one 
important  work,  long  supposed  to  be  lost,  but  now 
well  known  as  his  '  First  Passion  Oratorio.'  The 
performance  of  this,  in  one  of  the  great  Churches  in 
the  town,  on  Good  Friday,  1704,  appears  to  have 
created  no  very  profound  emotion.  But,  the  recep- 
tion of  Alriiira,  at  the  Hamburg  Opera  House,  on 


2  24  Almira.    Agrippina,    [a.d.  i  705-1 708. 

tlie  8tli  of  January,  1705,  was  so  entliusiastic,  that 
the  piece  enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  *  run,'  until  the 
25th  of  February,  when  it  was  only  discontinued,  to 
make  room  for  the  composer's  second  Opera,  iVero, 
which  was  followed,  in  turn,  by  Florindo,  and 
Daphne,  both  produced  in  1706.  The  scores  of 
these  three  last  Operas  are  hopelessly  lost ;  but  that 
of  Almira  still  exists,  and  shows  evident  traces  of 
the  originality  of  Handel's  genius. 

In  1706  the  young  composer  quitted  Hamburg, 
for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  his  studies  in  Italy, 
in  which  country  alone  it  was  then  possible  to 
obtain  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  higher 
Schools  of  Vocal  Music.  His  first  Itahan  Opera, 
Bodrigo,  was  produced,  at  Florence,  in  1 707.  It  was 
received  with  unqualified  approbation :  but  the  re- 
ception of  his  next  Opera,  Agrippina,  at  Venice,  in 
1708,  was  a  veritable  triumph.  At  every  pause  in  the 
performance,  the  theatre  rang  with  shouts  of  Viva 
il  caro  Sassone — '  Long  live  the  dear  Saxon  :'  and 
the  Opera  ran,  for  twenty-seven  nights,  without 
interruption. 

In  1708,  Handel  produced  his  first  Italian 
Oratorio,  La  Eesurrezione,  at  the  Palace  of  the 
Marchese  Ruspoli,  in  Rome.  A  second  work  of 
the  same  kind,  called  II  Trionfo  del  Tempo  e  del 
Disinganno,  was  produced,  in  the  same  year,  at  the 
Palace   of  Cardinal  Ottoboni.     These  important 


A.D.  1708-1711.]    Aci  e  Galatea.    Rinaldo.  225 

works  are  both  characterised  by  an  extremely 
elaborate  style  of  Instrumentation.  Flutes,  Oboes, 
and  Trumpets  are  freely  employed.  The  principal 
Violin  part  was  played  by  Corelli ;  and  the  part  for 
the  Yiola  da  gamba  was  evidently  written  for  a 
virtuoso  of  quite  exceptional  power. 

At  Naples,  Handel  produced,  in  1708,  a  Serenata, 
entitled  Aci,  Galatea,  e  Polifemo,  embodying  therein 
ideas  of  his  more  famous  English  Serenata, 
Acis  and  Galatea,  to  be  presently  described.  He 
also  wrote,  during  his  residence  in  Italy,  a  charming 
Motet,  entitled  Silete  venti,  and  some  other  pieces  of 
Sacred  Music,  with  Latin  words,  besides  a  great 
number  of  Italian  Cantatas,  Duets,  and  Trios,  and 
seven  French  Chansons. 

Handel  quitted  Italy  in  1710;  and,  towards  the 
close  of  November,  in  that  year,  made  his  first 
appearance  in  London,  where,  on  the  24th  of 
February,  1711,  he  produced  his  famous  Opera, 
Binaldo,  at  the  Queen's  Theatre.*  The  success  of 
this  great  work  was  quite  unprecedented.  The 
principal  part  was  entrusted  to  the  celebrated 
artificial  Soprano,  Nicolini,  who  sang  it  to  per- 

^  The  well-known  Opera  House,  in  the  Haymarket,  afterwards 
known  as  The  King's  Theatre,  and,  in  our  own  day,  as  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre.  The  house  was  originally  built,  by  Yanbrugh, 
in  1705;  burned  down,  in  1789;  rebuilt,  in  1791;  again  burned 
down,  in  1867  ;  and  finally  rebuilt,  in  its  present  form,  in  1877. 

Q 


226  II  Pastor  fido,    Teseo.    [a.d.  1712-1713. 

fection.  The  publishing  rights  were  secured,  as 
well  as  the  Law  of  the  period  permitted,  by  Walsh, 
who  made  £1500  by  his  speculation.  The  Opera 
was  several  times  revived,  in  later  years ;  and  one, 
at  least,  of  the  Airs — Lascia  cJi  io  pianga — is  as 
popular,  at  the  present  day,  as  it  was  a  hundred 
and  seventy  years  ago  :  yet,  the  whole  of  the  Music 
was  composed  in  less  than  a  fortnight. 

Before  starting  on  his  journey  to  England, 
Handel  had  accepted  the  appointment  of  Kapell- 
meister at  the  Court  of  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
with  leave  of  absence  for  the  purpose  of  completing 
his  travels.  He  returned  to  his  duties,  at  the 
Electoral  Court,  in  June,  1711,  composing  Italian 
Chamber-Music  for  the  Princess  Caroline,  and, 
possibly,  some  Hautboy  Concertos.  In  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  again  obtained  leave  of  absence,  on 
condition  that  he  returned  to  Hanover  within  a 
reasonable  time.  A  hearty  welcome  awaited  him, 
in  London;  and,  on  November  26,  1712,  he  re- 
appeared, at  the  Queen's  Theatre,  with  a  new 
Opera,  entitled  II  Pastor  fido.  Notwithstanding 
the  beauty  of  its  Music,  the  new  piece  failed  to  draw 
crowded  houses;  but  Teseo,  produced  in  1713, 
proved  a  great  success,  and  mainly  supported  the 
establishment,  during  the  entire  season.  An  Opera, 
on  a  smaller  scale,  entitled  Silla,  does  not  appear  to 
have  ever  been  performed  in  public,  though  there  is 


A.D.  I /1 3.]      The  Utrecht  '  Te  Deiim'  227 

reason  to  believe  that  a  private  performance  of  the 
piece  took  place,  about  this  time,  at  Burlington 
House,  where,  under  the  patronage  of  Richard,  third 
Earl  of  Burlington,  Handel  was  received  as  an 
honoured  guest,  on  this  his  second  visit  to  London. 
His  reception  in  England  was,  in  fact,  so  very 
friendly,  that  he  quite  forgot  the  '  reasonable  time ' 
prescribed  by  the  Elector  of  Hanover. 

On  the  6th  of  February,  1713,  Handel  made  his 
first  appearance  before  a  London  audience  with  a 
composition  adapted  to  English  words — the  Birth- 
day Ode,  written  to  celebrate  the  forty-ninth  anni- 
versary of  Queen  Anne's  entrance  into  the  world. 
On  the  7th  of  July,  in  the  same  year,  he  produced 
his  famous  Utrecht  Te  Benin  and  Jubilate — a  work 
abounding  in  plainest  evidence  of  his  growing 
powers,  and  foreshadowing  more  clearly  than  any 
other,  the  sublimity  of  the  inspirations  with  which 
he  was  destined  to  be  visited  in  later  years.  And 
here  it  is  that  Handel  first  shows  his  determination 
to  cast  in  his  lot,  frankly,  and  unreservedly,  with  that 
great  English  School  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
the  brightest  ornament.  It  is  impossible  to  com- 
pare the  Utrecht  Te  Beum  and  Jubilate  with  the  Te 
Deum  and  Jubilate  composed  by  Purcell  for  S. 
Ceeciha's  Day,  1694,  without  feeling  that  Handel 
took  up  the  work  of  the  English  School  where 
Purcell  had  left  it,  in  order  that  he  might  carry  it 

Q  2 


228 


A7nadigi. 


[a.d.  1715, 


on  to  heights  till  then  nnconquered.  He  did  not 
create  the  School :  but  he  brought  it  to  perfection, 
as  Palestrina,  in  the  16th  century,  brought  to  per- 
fection the  work  begun  by  Josquin  des  Pres.  And 
so  it  comes  to  pass,  that  he  stands  before  us,  now, 
as  the  greatest  of  English  Masters,  and  the  truest 
exponent  of  the  truest  English  style,  though 
England  was  only  the  country  of  his  adoption,  and 
his  right  to  the  name  of  Englishman  rested  upon  no 
firmer  basis  than  an  Act  of  Naturalisation. 

Still  forgetful  of  his  promise  to  return  to 
Hanover,  Handel  produced,  in  1715,  another  grand 
Opera,  more  magnificently  appointed,  if  possible, 
than  even  Binaldo.  This  was  entitled  Amadigi. 
The  libretto  was  written  by  the  new  manager  of 
the  Theatre,  a  Swiss  adventurer  known  as  '  Count ' 
Heidegger.  The  principal  parts  were  sung  by 
Nicolini,  Signora  Diana  Yico,  Signora  Pilotti  Schia- 
vonetti,  and  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Anastasia  Robinson, 
afterwards  Countess  of  Peterborough.  The  success 
of  the  piece  was  perfect,  and  added  not  a  little  to 
Handel's  already  brilliant  reputation. 

But,  an  event  had  already  occurred,  which 
threatened  seriously  to  blight  the  young  composer's 
future  prospects.  Queen  Anne  died,  on  the  1st  of 
August,  1714;  and  the  enemies  of  the  Stuarts 
invited  the  Elector  of  Hanover  to  fill  the  vacant 
Throne.    He  landed,  at  Greenwich,  on  the  18th  of 


A .  D .  1 7 1 5 .  ]       'The  Water  M  teste  k. '  229 

September;  on  the  20th,  he  arrived  at  St.  James's; 
and,  on  the  20th  of  October,  he  was  crowned,  at 
Westminster-  Abbey.  Handel  dared  not  present 
himself  at  Court,  in  face  of  his  broken  engagement. 
But,  faithful  friends  watched  over  him.  On  the 
22nd  of  August,  1715,  the  Royal  Family  proceeded^ 
by  water,  from  Whitehall  to  Limehouse.  By  advice 
of  Baron  Kilmansegge,  Handel  composed  a  series  of 
instrumental  pieces,  now  known  as  The  Water 
Music,  and  caused  them  to  be  played,  by  an  efficient 
Orchestra,  on  a  barge,  in  which  he  himself  followed 
the  Royal  party.  The  King  heard  the  Music  with 
delight ;  enquired  the  name  of  its  Composer ;  and, 
on  hearing  that  it  was  the  work  of  his  truant  Kapell- 
meister, forgave  the  past,  summoned  the  delinquent 
into  his  presence,  and  dismissed  him  with  a  pension, 
for  life,  of  two  hundred  pounds  a  year,  in  addition 
to  two  hundred  pounds  already  granted  to  him  by 
Queen  Anne,  after  the  production  of  the  Utrecht  Te 
Deum. 

In  1716,  Handel  accompanied  the  King  on  a 
journey  to  Hanover,  and,  in  passing  through  Ham- 
burg, produced  a  second  Passion  Oratorio,  far  finer 
the  first.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  entered  the 
service  of  James,  Duke  of  Chandos,  who  was  then 
living,  in  princely  state,  in  his  newly-built  mansion, 
at  Cannons,  near  Edgware.  For  the  Chapel 
attached  to  this  splendid  mansion  Handel  com- 


230  Esther,    A cis  and  Galatea,    [a.d.  1720. 

posed  the  twelve  Ghandos  Anthems,  some  settings  of 
the  Te  Deum,  with  Orchestral  Accompaniments,  and 
his  first  English  Oratorio,  Esther,  The  libretto  for 
this  is  believed  to  have  been  furnished  by  Pope.  It 
was  privately  performed,  at  Cannons,  in  1720,  when 
the  Duke  testified  his  approval  of  the  work  by  pre- 
senting Handel  with  £1000 ;  and,  after  this,  no- 
thing more  was  heard  of  it,  until  1732.  To  assert 
that  it  equals  in  sublimity  the  great  Oratorios  pro- 
duced by  its  author  at  a  later  period  would  be  to 
overstep  the  truth;  but  it  far  surpasses  all  his 
earlier  efforts  in  this  direction,  and  throws  the 
works  of  all  contemporary  writers  completely  into 
the  shade,  as  does  another  work — Acis  and  Galatea 
— also  produced,  at  Cannons,  in  1720,  yet  received, 
at  the  present  day,  with  a  pleasure  which  proves  its 
beauties  to  be  ever  new.  Handel  also  composed, 
during  his  sojourn  with  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  the 
celebrated  set  of  Suites  de  Pieces  pour  le  Clavecin, 
one  Movement  in  which,  now  known  as  '  The  Har- 
monious Blachsmith,^  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the 
most  popular  Composition  that  was  ever  written  for 
the  Harpsichord,  or  even  for  the  Piano-forte. 

Handel  quitted  Cannons,  in  1720,  for  the  purpose 
of  assuming  the  direction  of  a  new  Company,  formed 
under  the  title  of  '  The  Royal  Academy  of  Music,' 
with  the  idea  of  placing  Italian  Opera  on  a  firmer 
basis  than  it  had  hitherto  occupied  in  England. 


A.D.  172  0-1728.]  '  The  Royal  Academy  of  Music  ,^  231 

Notwithstanding  the  great  success  of  Amadigi,  no 
Italian  Opera  had  been  performed  at  the  King's 
Theatre — as  it  was  now  called — since  1717 ;  but,  on 
the  2nd  of  April,  1720,  the  house  reopened,  with 
Giovanni  Porta' s  Numitor,  under  very  favourable 
auspices  indeed.  Three  Composers  were  engaged — 
Giovanni  Battista  Buononcini,  Attilio  Ariosti,  and 
Handel  himself,  upon  whom,  in  fact,  the  whole 
responsibility  of  the  musical  arrangements  rested. 
The  Company  continued  its  work,  with  varying 
fortunes,  for  eight  years,  during  which  time  Handel 
produced  fourteen  Operas,  viz. :  Badamisto,  [1720]  ; 
Muzio  Scevola,  (the  Third  Act  only),  [1721];  Flori- 
dante,  [1721];  Ottone,  [1723];  Flavio,  [1723]; 
Giulio  Gesare,  [1724];  Tamerlano,  [1724];  Eode- 
linda,  [1725]  ;  Soijpione,  [1726]  ;  Alessandro,  [1726]  ; 
Ammeto,  [1727];  Riccardo  jprimo,  [1727];  Siroe, 
[1728]  ;  and  Tolomeo,  [1728].  These  works  contain 
some  of  his  most  beautiful  Music,  and  nearly  all  of 
them  were  successful,  in  the  highest  degree.  But, 
the  Composer's  position  was  not  an  enviable  one. 
In  1721,  he  produced  Muzio  Scevola  in  conjunction 
with  Ariosti,  who  wrote  the  First  Act,  and  Buonon- 
cini, who  composed  the  Second.  This  arrangement 
produced  a  rivalry  between  the  last-named  Com- 
poser, and  Handel,  which  led  to  the  most  disastrous 
results.  The  implacable  jealousy  of  the  two  great 
prime  donne,  Cuzzoni,  and  Faustina,  helped  to  bring 


232  'The  Ope7'a  of  the  Nobility!     [a.d.  1737. 

the  scheme  to  ruin.  And,  on  June  Ist,  ]728,  the 
Eoyal  Academy  of  Music  collapsed,  with  a  dead  loss 
of  £50,000. 

But,  the  indomitable  Director  was  not  to  be 
turned  from  his  purpose.  On  the  2nd  of  December, 
1729,  he  reopened  the  Theatre,  on  his  own  account, 
in  partnership  with  the  Swiss  adventurer,  Hei- 
degger. Undismayed  by  an  almost  uninterrupted 
series  of  losses  and  misfortunes,  he  produced,  be- 
tween 1729,  and  1741,  eighteen  new  Operas,  the 
beauty  of  which  was  in  no  wise  inferior  to  that  of 
his  earlier  masterpieces.  The  names  of  them  were, 
Lotario,  [1729];  Varteno^e,\VlZ^\,  Poro,  [1731]  ; 
Bzio,  [1732];  Sosarme,  [1732];  Orlando,  [1733]; 
Arianna,  [1734]  ;  Ariodante,  [1735]  ;  Alcina,  [1735]; 
Atalanta,  [1736];  Arminio,  [1737];  Giustino,[1737]; 
Berenice,  [1737]  ;  Faramondo,  [1738]  ;  Serse, 
[1738];  Jupiter  in  Argos,  [1739];  Imeneo,  [1740]; 
and  Deidamia  (his  last  dramatic  work)  [1741]. 
Many  of  these  works  were  written  under  pressure  of 
terrible  pecuniary  difficulties,  and  other  very  serious 
annoyances.  Handel's  principal  male  singer — the 
famous  artificial  Soprano,  Senesino — basely  deserted 
him,  and,  supported  by  the  partisans  of  the  jealous 
and  implacable  Buononcini,  joined  a  rival  company, 
which,  from  the  number  of  men  of  high  rank  who 
speculated  in  its  favour,  was  called  *  The  Opera  of 
the  Nobility.'    This  collapsed,  in  1737 ;  but  Handel 


A .  D .  1732.]  Revival  of  Esther,  233 

gained  notliing  by  its  failure,  for,  in  tlie  same  year, 
lie  himself  became  bankrupt,  and  his  misfortune 
was  followed  by  a  severe  attack  of  paralysis,  from 
which  he  only  recovered  after  a  long  period  of  rest, 
and  medical  treatment,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

This  terrible  crisis  put  an  end,  for  ever,  to 
Handel's  connection  with  the  Stage.  But,  happily 
for  himself,  and  for  Art,  a  new  career  had  already 
been  opened  to  him.  On  his  47th  birthday,  February 
23,  1732,  the  Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  gave  a 
private  performance  of  Esther,  with  scenery,  dresses, 
and  action,  at  the  house  of  their  Master,  Mr.  Bernard 
Gates,  in  James  Street,  Westminster.  This  attracted 
so  much  attention,  that  a  dishonest  speculator  ad- 
vertised a  similar  performance  three  months  later,  at 
'  the  Great  Room  in  Yillar's  Street.'  In  self-defence, 
Handel  announced  a  performance  of  Esther,  at  the 
King's  Theatre.  The  Princess  Eoyal  wished  for 
scenery,  and  action.  These  were  forbidden,  by  the 
Bishop  of  London;  but,  on  May  2,  1732,  the  per- 
formance took  place,  in  accordance  with  the  follow- 
ing announcement — '  N.B.  There  will  be  no  acting 
on  the  Stage,  but  the  house  will  be  fitted  up,  in  a 
decent  manner,  for  the  audience.'  This  was  the 
first  of  Handel' s  great  Oratorio  performances ;  and 
the  result  was  most  encouraging.  On  the  10th  of 
June,  1732,  he  produced  Acis  and  Galatea,  in 
like  manner,  without  action ;  though,  in  this  case, 


234  The  great  Oratorios,    [a.d.  1733-1757. 

with  the  attraction  of  scenery,  and  dresses.  The 
piece  had  already  been  pirated,  by  the  father  of 
Dr.  Arne,  at  the  '  Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket :' 
but  Handel's  performance  extinguished  the  specu- 
lators ;  and  succeeded  so  well,  that  it  was  given 
four  times,  at  the  King's  Theatre,  and  repeated,  in 
1733,  at  Oxford.  On  March  17,  1733,  he  pro- 
duced, at  the  King's  Theatre,  an  entirely  new 
Oratorio,  entitled  Behorali^  in  which  he  first  intro- 
duced the  Double  Choruses  for  which  he  afterwards 
became  so  justly  famous.  The  jealousy  of  his 
rivals  rendered  this  venture  very  nearly  a  failure ; 
but  it  prepared  the  way  for  a  long  series  of  new 
works,  exceeding  in  sublimity  any  that  had  ever 
previously  appeared,  and  rising  to  heights  which  set 
all  artistic  rivalry,  present,  or  future,  at  defiance. 
The  order  in  which  these  stupendous  works  ap- 
peared was  as  follows — Deborah,  [1733]  ;  Athaliah, 
[1733];  Saul,  [1739];  Israel  in  Egypt,  [1739]; 
Messiah,  [1742];  Samson,  [1743];  Joseph,  [1744]; 
Belshazzar,  [1745]  ;  The  Occasional  Oratorio,  [1746]  ; 
Judas  MaccahcGUs,  [1747]  ;  Alexander  Balus,  [1748]  ; 
Joshua,  [1748]  ;  Solomon,  [1749]  ;  Susanna,  [1749]  ; 
TJieodora,  [1750];  Jephtha,  [1752];  and  The 
Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth,  [1757].  To  these 
must  be  added  some  secular  works,  written  in  a 
style  no  less  elevated  than  that  of  the  Oratorios ; 
viz.:  Paniasso  in  Festa,  [1734<];  Alexander's  Feast 


A. D.  1742.]  'Messiah'  235 

[1736]  ;  Dryden's  Ode  for  S.  Gcecilia's  Day,  [1739]  ; 
and  1/ Allegro,  il  Penseroso,  ed  il  Moderato,  [1740]. 

The  Messiah  was  first  produced  at  Dublin,  on  the 
13th  of  April,  1742;  and  repeated,  on  the  3rd  of 
June.  The  first  performance  in  London  took  place 
on  the  23rd  of  March,  1743,  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre;  on  which  occasion  King  George  II.  set 
the  example  of  rising  at  the  Hallelujah  Chorus — a 
reverent  custom  which  has  been  invariably  observed, 
to  the  present  day.  From  1750,  to  1758,  Handel 
performed  it  annually — sometimes  twice  a  year — in 
the  Chapel  of  the  Foundling  Hospital,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Charity.  On  the  6th  of  April,  1759,  he  con- 
ducted it,  for  the  last  time,  at  Covent  Garden ;  and, 
on  the  13th — or,  according  to  other  accounts,  the 
14th  ^ — of  the  same  month,  the  great  Composer 
breathed  his  last,  at  his  house — formerly,  No.  57, 
but  now  No.  25 — in  Brook  Street,  Grosvenor  Square. 
He  was  laid  to  rest  in  the  South  Transept  of  "West- 
minster Abbey,  on  Friday  night,  April  20,  '  at  about 
8  o'clock;'  and,  on  July  10, 1762,  the  Monument  by 
Eoubiliac  was  placed  in  its  present  position,  against 
the  western  wall  of  '  Poet's  Corner.' 

At  the  time  of  his  death  Handel  was  by  no  means 
a  prosperous  man.    His  Oratorio  performances  were 

^  The  exact  date  of  Handel's  death  has  given  rise  to  as  much 
discussion  as  that  of  his  birth.  Unhappily,  it  cannot  now  be 
decided  with  equal  certainty. 


236  The  Death  of  HandeL       [a.d.  1759. 

little  less  disastrous,  as  pecuniary  speculations,  than 
those  of  his  Operas ;  for  his  enemies  were  as  bitter 


Fig.  37. 

GEOEG  FEIEDEICH  HANDEL. 


as  his  friends  were  true,  and  much  more  numerous 
and  powerful.  He  became  bankrupt,  for  the  second 
time,  in  1745;  but,  as  on  the  former  occasion, 


A. D.  1685-1759-]     The  Genitts  of  Handel.  237 

honourably  fulfilled  all  liis  engagements.  To  add 
to  liis  distress,  he  was  attacked,  in  1751,  with  in- 
cipient gutta  serena^  which,  notwithstanding  a  skil- 
fully-performed operation,  ended,  some  two  years 
later,  in  total  blindness.  But,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  he  continued  to  direct  his  Orchestra,  and  even 
to  play  his  famous  Organ  Concertos,  in  utter  dark- 
ness, until  the  last  week  of  his  honourable  and 
eventful  life.  The  slight  sketch  of  that  life  with 
which  we  have  here  presented  our  readers,  though  it 
has  already  extended  to  the  utmost  limit  permissible 
in  a  '  General  History,'  barely  indicates  the  outline 
of  his  career ;  ^  yet  it  will  suffice  to  give  some  idea 
of  the  effect  produced  by  his  genius  upon  the  great 
English  School,  of  which  he  was  the  brightest 
ornament,  and  the  glories  of  which  culminated  in 
the  works  with  which  he  so  richly  endowed  it. 
That  those  works  are  prized,  to-day,  as  highly  as 
they  were  during  his  life- time,  is  a  fact  too  well 
known  to  need  comment.  Their  innate  grandeur 
has,  hitherto,  defied  all  attempts  either  at  rivalry,  or 
imitation;  and  we  may  safely  predict,  that,  to  the 
end  of  time,  the  Messiah^  and  Israel  in  Egypt^  will 
command  as  deep  a  reverence  as  that  which  they 
have  never  ceased  to  enjoy  since  the  day  of  their 
production. 

^  For  farther  details,  see  the  author's  '  Life  of  George  Frederick 
Handel.'    (London.    Macmillan  and  Co.  1883.) 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


JOHANN  SEBASTIAN  BACH. 

The  Bacli  family  was  a  very  remarkable  one.  During 
the  course  of  two  full  centuries  it  produced  gene- 
ration after  generation  of  hard-working  Musicians, 
whose  conscientious  labours  contributed,  in  no  small 
degree,  to  the  formation  and  development  of  that 
great  German  School,  which  adopted  the  Choral  as 
its  watch-word,  used  the  Organ  for  the  expression  of 
its  grandest  ideas,  and  made  the  cultivation  of  Sacred 
Music  its  special  care.  Many  of  the  elder  Bachs 
were  gifted  with  extraordinary  musical  talent,  which 
descended  so  frequently  from  father  to  son,  that 
the  honest  burghers  learned  to  regard  it  as  a  family 
inheritance — a  precious  heir-loom,  to  be  coveted, 
and  cherished,  even  by  younger  scions  of  the  house 
who  were  destined  to  gain  their  livelihood  without 
its  aid,  and  still  more  assiduously  cultivated  by  the 
professional  members  of  the  family.  Among  these 
last  were  two  twin  brothers,  Johann  Christoph,  and 
Johann  Ambrosius,  the  first  of  whom  held  the 


A.D.  1695.]        The  Coveted  Volume.  239 

appointment  of  Court-Musician  to  the  Graf  yon 
Schwarzburg,  at  Arnstadt,  while  the  second  occu- 
pied a  more  humble  position  at  Erfurt,  where  he 
died,  in  1695,  leaving  behind  him  two  sons — Johann 
Christoph,^  born  in  1671,  and  the  subject  of  the 
present  memoir,  Johann  Sebastian,  who  was  born, 
at  Eisenach,  on  the  21st  of  March,  1685.  On  the 
death  of  Johann  Ambrosius,  the  care  of  the  little 
Johann  Sebastian  devolved  upon  the  elder  brother, 
w^ho  treated  him  cruelly,  and,  though  a  good 
Musician  himself,  either  failed  to  appreciate  the 
child's  transcendent  talent,  or — which  seems  more 
probable — was  tempted,  by  jealousy,  to  suppress  it. 
At  ten  years  old,  the  young  aspirant  was  able  to 
play  all  his  exercises  by  heart,  and  longed  to  pass 
on  to  Music  of  a  more  advanced  character.  J ohann 
Ohristoph,  his  senior  by  fourteen  years,  had  been  a 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Pachelbel,  and  was,  at  this 
time.  Organist  of  Ohrdruff.  He  possessed  a  MS. 
volume,  containing  compositions  by  Pachelbel, 
Frohberger,  Buxtehude,  and  all  the  best  writers  of 
the  period.  This  precious  volume  was  the  idol  of 
the  child's  ambition :  but  he  was  forbidden  to 
touch  it.  Knowing,  however,  the  cupboard  in 
which  it  was  kept,  he  abstracted  it  from  its  hiding- 
place,  at  nightj  and,  with  indomitable  perseverance, 

^  No  less  than  six  well-known  members  of  the  Bach  family 
bore  this  double  Christian  name. 


240  The  Cruel  Brother,  [a. d.  1695-1708. 

copied  the  whole,  by  moon-light.  Unhappily, 
Johann  Christoph  discovered  the  transcript,  almost 
immediately  after  its  completion,  and,  with  heartless 
barbarity,  robbed  the  poor  child  of  his  hardly- 
earned  treasure.  The  little  Sebastian  was  broken- 
hearted ;  but  neither  he,  nor  his  unnatural  brother, 
then  knew  the  full  extent  of  his  misfortune.  The 
long-continued  effort  of  writing,  by  moonlight,  had 
injured  his  eyes  so  seriously  that  he  never  fully 
recovered  the  use  of  his  sight.  As  he  grew  older, 
the  evil  increased;  and,  for  some  time  before  his 
death,  he  became  totally  blind. 

In  1700,  Johann  Sebastian,  then  fifteen  years 
old,  entered  the  Mich^lis-Schule,  at  Liineburg, 
where  his  lovely  Treble  Voice  attracted  great 
attention.  In  his  holidays,  he  made  numerous 
excursions,  on  foot,  to  Hamburg,  for  the  purpose  of 
hearing  the  great  Dutch  Organist,  Reinken,  from 
whose  performances  he  learnt  a  great  deal.  In 
1703,  he  acted,  for  a  time,  as  Court-Musician,  at 
Weimar ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  he  was  chosen 
Organist  of  the  Neuekirche,  at  Arnstadt.  In  1705, 
he  received  some  instruction  on  the  Organ  from 
Buxtehude,  at  Liibeck.  In  1707,  he  removed  to 
Miihlhausen;  and,  in  1708,  he  was  appointed  Court- 
Organist  at  Weimar,  where  he  produced  most  of 
his  grand  compositions  for  his  favourite  instrument. 
In  1714,  he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  Hof- 


A.D.  1723.]      At  the  ThomaS'Schitle,  241 

Concertmeister ;  and,  bj  this  time,  his  fame  may  be 
said  to  have  been  fairly  established.  In  fact,  so 
great  was  his  reputation  as  a  performer,  that  when, 
on  visiting  Dresden,  in  1717,  he  was  induced  to 
challenge  a  famous  French  Organist,  named  Mar- 
chand,  to  a  trial  of  skill,  his  terms  were  accepted, 
but,  on  the  morning  appointed  for  the  contest,  it 
was  found  that  his  opponent's  courage  had  failed,  and 
that  he  had  secretly  left  the  city. 

On  his  return  from  this  visit  to  Dresden,  Bach 
was  appointed  Kapellmeister  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Anhalt  Cothen.  He  remained  at  Cothen  six  years, 
during  which  time  he  produced  the  greater  number 
of  his  Chamber  Compositions.  While  still  in  the 
Prince's  service,  he  became  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  Organist  at  the  Jacobikirche,  at  Hamburg, 
but  was  rejected,  to  make  room  for  a  nameless 
young  man  who  paid  4000  marks  for  the  appoint- 
ment. This,  however,  was  a  matter  of  very  slight 
importance  ;  for,  in  1723,  he  was  appointed  Cantor 
at  the  Thomas-Schule,  in  Leipzig — an  important 
post  which  he  retained  until  his  death.  Here  it  was 
that  he  wrote  his  greatest  Sacred  Compositions,  his 
Passion-Music,  Oratorios,  and  Church-Cantatas,  and 
the  wonderful  Masses  which  remained  for  so  many 
years  unknown,  but  are  now  regarded  as  the  finest 
works  of  their  class  in  existence. 

After  this  period,  honours  fell  thickly  upon  him. 

B 


242  King  Frederick  the  Great,    [a.d.  1747. 

In  1736,  he  was  appointed  Court  Composer  to  tlie 
Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Kapellmeister  to  the  Duke 
of  Saxe  Weissenfels  ;  and,  in  1747,  he  was  invited, 
by  Frederick  the  Great,  to  the  Court  at  Potsdam, 
where  his  son,  Carl  Philip  Emanuel,  held  the  office 
of  Cembalist.  His  visit  to  the  music-loving  Monarch 
formed  the  most  memorable  event  in  his  life.  At 
the  moment  that  his  arrival  at  the  Palace  was 
announced,  the  King  was  engaged  in  his  usual 
evening  performance  on  the  Flute ;  but,  so  great 
was  his  impatience  to  hear  the  famous  Organist, 
that  he  exclaimed  to  his  Courtiers,  '  Gentlemen,  old 
Bach  has  arrived.'  The  Flute  was  unceremoniously 
laid  aside.  Bach,  who  had  not  yet  had  time  to 
change  his  travelling  dress,  was  introduced,  without 
a  moment's  delay.  And  the  King  proceeded  with 
him,  from  room  to  room,  making  him  play  on  all 
his  newly  acquired  Silbermann  Pianofortes,^  and  all 
the  Organs  in  the  Palace.  He  extemporised,  over 
and  over  again,  upon  a  Theme  dictated  to  him  by 
the  King;  and  concluded  his  performance  with  a 
Fugue,  in  eight  parts,  on  a  Subject  of  his  own. 
On  his  return  to  Leipzig,  he  embodied  the  Theme 
given  to  him  by  the  King,  in  a  work  which  he 
called  the  '  Musihalisches  Op/er,'  and  which  he  after- 
wards sent  to  Frederick,  in  memory  of  his  visit, 

*  Three  of  these  instruments  are  still  in  existence ;  one,  at  the 
Stadtschloss  ;  one  at  Sans  Souci ;  and  one,  at  the  Il^'eue  Palast. 


A.D.  1750.]  The  Death  of  Bach.  243 

which  lie  survived  but  three  years,  dying,  of  a  fit  of 
apoplexy,  July  28,  1750. 


Fig.  33. 
JOHAXN  SEBASTIAN  BACH. 


Bach's  life  was  essentially  an  uneventful  one ; 
yet,  its  influence  upon  the  future  of  Art  was  enor- 
mous.   He  was  twice  married :  to  Maria  Barbara, 

E  2 


244  The  Genius  of  Bach.  [a.d.  1685-1750. 

daughter  of  Micliael  Bach,  in  1707  ;  and,  in  1721, 
to  Anna  Magdalena  Wiilkens.  His  first  wife  bore 
Mm  seven  children ;  his  second,  thirteen.  Four 
only  of  his  sons  survived  him  :  Wilhelm  Friede- 
mann,  and  Carl  Philip  Emanuel,  by  tlie  first  wife ; 
with  Johann  Christopb  Friedrich,  and  Joliann 
Christian,  by  the  second.  These  were  all  good 
Musicians ;  but  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  was  a  true 
genius,  and,  after  his  father,  the  greatest  repre- 
sentative of  this  wonderful  family.  Apparently 
absorbed  in  the  care  and  education  of  his  numerous 
children.  Bach  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of 
his  Art,  with  an  earnestness  which  never  tired. 
The  treasures  he  has  bequeathed  to  us — more  than 
one  of  them  engraved  by  his  own  hand — are  innu- 
merable. His  style,  though  founded  upon  the  work 
of  his  predecessors,  was  unmistakably  his  own; 
and  differed,  in  almost  every  important  respect, 
from  that  of  his  great  contemporary,  Handel.  The 
style  of  Part-writing  cultivated  by  Handel  bears  a 
far  closer  relation  to  the  Counterpoint  of  the  older 
Polyphonic  Schools  than  that  employed  by  Bach. 
Both  Masters  make  unsparing  use  of  the  multi- 
farious resources  of  modern  Art,  including  its 
Unprepared  Discords,  its  Chromatic  Progressions, 
and  even  its  boldest  Enharmonic  Licences.  But 
Handel  seemed  incapable  of  writing  a  harsh  collision. 
His  use  of  Discords  is  as  truly  harmonious  as  his 


A.D.  1685-1750.]  The  Genius  of  Bach.  245 

employment  of  Concords  ;  while  Bacli  delighted  in 
crashing  through  every  obstacle  that  came  in  his 
way,  with  such  consummate  power  over  the  Discords 
he  employed  that  he  turned  their  very  harshness 
into  a  never-failing  attraction.  His  ingenuity  was 
unbounded ;  but  he  never  cared  to  conceal  it,  as 
Handel  did.  In  Handel's  most  intricate  passages — 
in  the  mighty  ground-base  of  Envij,  eldest  horn  of 
Hell,  the  dizzy  involutions  of  the  '  Amen  Chorus,' 
and  in  other  similar  masterpieces  of  ingenuity — the 
effect  is  so  clear  and  harmonious  that  the  hearer 
never  pauses  to  think  of  the  almost  incredible 
learning  they  display.  He  takes  so  much  pains  to 
hide  his  Art  that  the  uninitiated  never  even  suspect 
its  presence.  Bach  never  did  this.  He  honestly 
laid  bare  the  learning  he  employed,  and  astonished 
his  hearers  as  much  as  he  delighted  them.  His 
Melodies,  again — calm,  fiery,  or  dignified,  as  the  case 
may  be — are  never  passionate,  as  Handel's  constantly 
are.  The  ductility  of  his  Fugal  Subjects  is  un- 
bounded ;  while  Handel's  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
their  enormous  breadth.  And  the  methods  of 
Instrumentation  adopted  by  the  two  great  Masters 
diverge  more  widely  from  each  other,  if  possible, 
than  the  style  of  their  Themes.  Bach  writes  con- 
stantly for  his  Wind-instruments  in  *  real  parts.' 
Handel  scarcely  ever  does  so.  Where  Bach  adorns 
his  Scores  with  the  most  perfect  imaginable  Part- 


246  The  Genius  of  Bach,   [a.d.  1685-1750. 

writing,  Handel  delights  in  producing  '  Orchestral 
Effects,'  which  often  rival,  in  their  beauty,  the  most 
charming  combinations  affected  by  later  Composers. 
And  so,  actuated  by  purest  love  of  artistic  truth, 
and  prompted  only  by  the  bias  of  their  own  indi- 
vidual minds,  these  two  great  giants  worked  simul- 
taneously, in  different  directions,  with  such  excellent 
success,  that,  after  the  lapse  of  a  century  and  a 
half,  it  is  impossible  to  say  which  excelled  the  other 
— if  either  did  excel — in  learning,  or  in  natural 
talent,  in  his  love  for  Art,  or  in  the  value  of  the 
precious  treasures  with  which  he  has  enriched  her 
beautiful  sanctuary. 


CHAPTEE  XXII. 

CHRISTOPH  WILLIBALD  GLUCE. 

We  have  spoken,  in  a  former  chapter,^  of  a  process 
of  gradual  deterioration,  by  means  of  wliich.  ttie 
Musical  Drama  was  diverted  from  its  high  purpose, 
and  reduced  to  the  level  of  a  Concert  on  the  Stage. 
The  evil  reached  its  climax  not  long  after  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century ;  and  even  Handel  has  been 
accused — though  very  unjustly — of  having  assisted 
in  perpetuating  it.  It  is  true  that  his  Operas 
abounded,  not  only  with  delicious  Melodies,  but  also 
with  brilliant  Arie  di  bravura  which  taxed  the 
powers  of  his  most  accomplished  vocalists :  but  he 
never  forgot  that  the  charms  of  his  slow  movements, 
and  the  tours  deforce  of  his  quicker  ones,  could  only 
be  lawfully  used  as  means  for  the  attainment  of  a 
definite  end — the  illustration  of  the  dramatic  truth 
of  the  Scene  in  which  they  were  introduced.  He 
individualised  the  character  of  every  actor  in  his 
Drama,  and  gave  to  each  the  style  best  suited  to 
1  See  page  158. 


248      Deterioration  of  the  Opera,  [i8th  Century. 

tlie  role  committed  to  him.  So  far  was  lie  from 
.pandering  to  tlie  prejudices  of  the  age,  that  he  was 
constantly  embroiled  with  singers  who  demanded 
Airs  written  in  a  style  which  he  considered  unfit  for 
the  dramatic  situations  in  which  they  were  placed. 
The  real  authors  of  this  threatened  destruction  were, 
Porpora/  and  Hasse.  Of  the  first  of  these  we  have 
already  spoken.  Hasse  [1699 — 1783]  was,  for 
many  years,  the  life  and  soul  of  the  famous  Dresden 
Opera,  where  his  wife — the  '  Faustina  '  who  gave  so 
much  trouble  to  Handel — delighted  the  Court  with 
her  exquisite  singing.  This  circumstance  undoubt- 
edly exercised  a  very  deleterious  influence  upon  his 
style  of  composition ;  for,  like  Porpora,  he  was 
ready,  at  any  moment,  to  sacrifice  all  sense  of  dra- 
matic propriety,  for  the  gratification  of  a  popular 
vocalist.  And,  in  this,  the  two  popular  composers 
did  but  follow  the  precepts  of  the  most  famous 
dramatists  of  the  period,  who,  with  Metastasio  at 
their  head,  enacted  a  code  of  laws  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Opera  which  bound  it  with  fetters  of 
iron. 

The  subject  of  the  plot  was  necessarily  classical, 
and  the  denouement  happy.  The  custom  of  the 
time  demanded  the  employment  of  six  characters 
only — three  women,  and  three  men ;  though,  in 
cases  of  necessity,  the  presence  of  a  fourth  man  was 

2  See  page  202. 


I  8th  Century.]  The  Laws  of  Italian  Opera.  249 

tolerated,  or,  a  woman  was  permitted  to  take  a 
man's  part.  The  First  Woman,  (Prima  Donna), 
was  always  a  high  Soprano ;  the  second,  or  third,  a 
Contralto.  The  First  Man,  (Frimo  uomo),  who 
represented  the  hero  of  the  piece,  was,  of  necessity, 
an  artificial  Soprano,  even  though  he  might  be 
destined  to  play  the  part  of  Hercules,  or  Agamemnon. 
The  Second  Man  was  either  an  artificial  Soprano, 
or  a  Contralto ;  the  Third  was  sometimes  a  Tenor ; 
the  Fourth,  if  present,  was  nearly  always  either  a 
Tenor,  or  a  Bass.  But,  it  was  not  at  all  unusual  to 
confide  all  the  male  parts  to  artificial  Sopranos,  or 
Contraltos,  without  the  aid  either  of  a  Tenor, 
Baritone,  or  Bass. 

Each  principal  character  claimed  the  right  to 
sing  an  Air,  in  each  of  the  three  Acts  of  the  Drama. 
The  Airs  confided  to  them  were  divided  into  five 
distinct  classes,  each  distinguished  by  certain  un- 
varying characteristics,  though  the  indispensable 
Da  cajjo  was  common  to  all. 

The  Aona  cantahile  was  a  flowing  Melody,  very 
lightly  accompanied,  and  affording  frequent  oppor- 
tunities for  extempore  embellishment. 

The  Aria  di  portamento  introduced  long  swelling 
notes,  demanding  great  sustaining  power  on  the 
part  of  the  singer. 

The  Aria  di  mezzo  carattere  was  more  fully 
developed,   and  more  richly  accompanied,  than 


250     The  Laws  of  Italian  Opera.  [i8th  Century. 

these  ;  and  admitted  much,  greater  variety  of  treat- 
ment. 

The  Aria  jparlante  was  designed  to  express  more 
passionate  emotion ;  and  hence  was  sometimes 
called  an  Aria  di  nota  e  jparola,  an  Aria  agitata^  an 
Aria  di  strepito,  or  even  an  Aria  infuriata. 

The  Aria  di  bravura,  or  Aria  d^agilita,  was  simply- 
designed  to  display  the  accomplishment  of  the  singer 
to  the  greatest  possible  advantage. 

In  addition  to  these  primary  forms,  certain  modified 
types  were  occasionally  employed ;  such  as  the  Cava- 
tina,  which  was  simply  an  Aria  cantabile,  without  a 
second  part ;  the  Aria  dHmitazione,  in  which  certain 
characteristic  features,  such  as  the  singing  of  birds, 
or  the  sounds  of  the  chase,  were  added  to  an  Aria 
di  mezzo  carattere,  or  di  bravura ;  the  Aria  con- 
certata,  in  which  the  accompaniment  was  unusually 
elaborate,  and  the  very  rare  Aria  alV  unisono, 
and  Aria  senza  accompagnamento,  instances  of 
which  will  be  found  in  Handel's  Rinaldo,  and 
Arianna, 

Each  Scene  ended  with  an  Air  of  one  or  other  of 
these  classes ;  but  no  two  Airs  of  the  same  class 
were  ever  permitted  to  succeed  each  other.  The 
hero  and  heroine  each  claimed  a  grand  Scena, 
preceded  by  an  Accompanied  Recitative ;  and  usually 
sang  together,  in  at  least  one  Duet;  but  Trios 
and  Quartets  were  rigidly  excluded,  though  the 


A.D.  1 741-1745.]  GlucUs  Early  Opei'as.  251 

last  Act  always  terminated  with  an  Enserahle,  in 
whicli  all  tlie  characters  took  part. 

It  needed  a  very  great  Master  to  express  dra- 
matic truth,  in  the  face  of  these  interminable 
restrictions.  Handel  overcame  their  stiffness,  and 
frequently  set  them  at  defiance ;  but  Porpora,  and 
Hasse,  and  their  less  talented  imitators,  thought  of 
the  vocalists  only ;  and  their  Operas  might  just  as 
well  have  been  sung  in  the  Concert-room  as  on  the 
Stage.  It  needed  a  great  genius,  to  counteract 
their  evil  influence  ;  and,  of  that  great  genius  we 
have  now  to  speak. 

Christoph  Willibald,  Ritter  von  Giuck,  was  born, 
at  Weidenwang,  July  2,  1714;  and  educated,  first, 
at  the  Jesuit  College  at  Komotow,  and  afterwards, 
at  Prague.  In  1736,  he  was  engaged  in  the 
Kapelle  of  Prince  Melzi,  who  took  him  to  Milan, 
where  he  completed  his  musical  studies,  under 
Sammartini ;  and  to  this  circumstance,  in  all  pro- 
bability, we  must  attribute  his  early  attachment  to 
the  Italian  School  of  Dramatic  Composition. 

His  first  Opera,  Artaserse,  was  produced,  at 
Milan,  in  1741;  and  speedily  followed  by  Demo- 
foonte,  Gleonice  (known  also  as  Demetrio),  and  Iperm- 
nestra.  Artamene,  and  Siface,  were  produced  in 
1743;  Feclra,  in  1744;  and  Foro  (called  also 
Alessandro  nelV  Indie)  in  1745.  These  works  were 
all  written  in  the  corrupt  style  of  the  period,  with 


252  G luck  in  London.         [a.d.  1745. 

no  attempt  at  dramatic  expression ;  but,  with  a 
tender  grace  and  unfailing  command  of  melody, 
which  neither  Hasse  nor  Porpora  were  able 
to  rival.  His  Air,  Basserena  il  mesto  ciglio,  in 
Artamene,  is  alone  sujfficient  to  establish  his  reputa- 
tion as  one  of  the  most  charming  composers  of  the 
age.  But,  he  was  working  on  a  thoroughly  vicious 
principle ;  and  an  accidental  circumstance  con- 
vinced him  of  the  fact. 

In  1745,  Gluck  was  invited  to  London,  as  Com- 
poser to  the  King's  Theatre,  in  the  Hay  market. 
Here  he  revived  Artamene,  and  produced  two  new 
Operas,  La  Caduta  de^  Giganti,  and  Piramo  e  Tisbe 
— the  last,  a  Pasticcio,  in  which  he  introduced  some 
of  his  most  celebrated  Airs.  None  of  these  pieces 
were  successful — probably,  because  the  remem- 
brance of  Handel's  finer  Operas  still  lingered  in  the 
ears  of  the  audience.  Handel  himself  was  not 
pleased  with  the  new  composer,  of  whom  he  is 
reported  to  have  said,  '  He  knows  no  more  of 
Counterpoint  than  my  cook.'  ^  But,  it  was  not 
lack  of  contrapuntal  skill  that  caused  Gluck' s 
failure.  His  discomfiture  arose  from  the  unfitness 
of  his  Airs  for  the  Scenes  in  which  they  were 
introduced — a  fact  which  he  had  penetration  enough 
to  discover  for  himself.    And  the  discovery  set  him 

'  Waltz,  Handel's  quondam  cook,  became  an  excellent  Bass 
singer,  but,  of  course,  knew  nothing  of  composition. 


A.D.  1 746-1 762.]  The  Meditated  Reform.  253 

thinking.  On  hearing  some  of  Eameau's  Operas,  in 
Paris,  he  suddenly  awoke  to  the  tremendous  power 
of  carefully-considered  Eecitative.  Returning  to 
Vienna,  in  17-i6,  he  applied  himself  assiduously  to 
study;  and,  in  1748,  showed  an  immense  advance  in 
Semiramide  riconosckita.  In  1750,  he  produced 
Telemacco,  at  Eome ;  and,  passing  thence  to  Xaples, 
brought  out  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,  in  1751.  Both 
these  works  evinced  a  decided  change  of  style,  as 
did,  also,  X'  Eroe  Cinese  [1754],  11  Trionfo  di 
Camillo,  and  Antigono.  During  the  seven  years 
that  followed,  he  produced  only  one  Opera,  Tetide, 
now  hopelessly  lost.  He  had,  in  fact,  given  him- 
self up  entirely  to  study ;  and  the  result  manifested 
itself  in  Orfeo,  produced  at  Vienna,  Oct.  5,  1762, 
and  undoubtedly  one  of  the  finest  as  well  as  one  of 
the  loveliest  Operas  that  ever  was  wi^itten.  The 
dramatic  force  displayed  in  this  great  work  is  truly 
wonderful ;  and  the  Music  is  superb.  There  was 
no  weak  Counterpoint,  now;  no  truckling  to  the 
tastes  of  petted  singers,  or  an  imbecile  public.  If  he 
had  not  yet  attained  the  fulfilment  of  his  purpose, 
he  had,  at  least,  approached  it  very  nearly. 

The  public,  however,  were  not  yet  prepared  to 
accept  his  new  ideas ;  and  he  was  compelled  to 
produce  pieces  for  the  Court  Theatre,  in  a  style 
that  he  had  already  learned  to  loathe.  One  of  them 
— II  Parnasso — was  played  by  four  Archduchesses, 


254  Alceste.  [a.d.  1767. 

and  accompanied,  on  the  Harpsichord,  by  the 
Archduke  Leopold.  It  was  probably  about  this 
time  that  the  Pope  created  him  a  Knight  of  the 
Golden  Spur.  At  this  time,  too,  he  gave  lessons  to 
Marie  Antoinette,  who  was  sincerely  attached  to 
him,  and,  there  is  reason  to  suppose,  a  convert  to 
his  newly-formed  opinions.  But,  his  popularity  did 
not  reconcile  Vienna  to  his  new  principles,  though 
he  was  not  deterred  from  making  vigorous  attempts, 
in  the  right  direction.  In  1767,  he  produced 
Alceste,  and,  in  1769,  Elena  e  Faride,  both  written 
wholly  in  accordance  with  his  new  principles,  which 
he  set  forth,  with  precision,  in  the  dedicatory  epistle 
(to  the  Archduchess  Leopold)  prefixed  to  the  Score 
of  Alceste,  A  more  valuable  exposition  of  the  true 
nature  of  the  Musical  Drama  than  this  can  scarcely 
be  conceived.  Gluck  tells  us,  that,  when  he  under- 
took to  set  Alceste  to  Music,  he  '  endeavoured  to 
reduce  Music  to  its  proper  function — that  of  second- 
ing Poetry  by  enforcing  the  expression  of  the  sen- 
timent, and  the  interest  of  the  situation,  without  in- 
terrupting the  action,  or  weakening  it  by  superfluous 
ornament.'  That  he  was  '  careful  never  to  interrupt 
a  singer  in  the  heat  of  a  dialogue,  for  the  purpose  of 
introducing  a  tedious  Ritornello or,  'to  stop  him, 
in  the  middle  of  an  Air,  for  the  purpose  of  display- 
ing the  flexibility  of  his  voice,  on  some  favourite 
vowel.'    That  he  did  not  think  it  right  *  to  hurry 


A.D.  1767.]  GlucJ^s  Principles.  255 

tlirougli  tlie  second  part  of  an  Air,  if  tlie  words  hap- 
pened to  be  the  most  important  of  the  whole,  in 
order  that  the  first  part  might  be  repeated  regularly 
four  times  over.'  That,  in  his  opinion,  ^  the  Over- 
ture ought  to  indicate  the  subject,  and  prepare  the 
spectators  for  the  character  of  the  piece  that  was  to 
follow and,  '  that  the  Instruments  ought  to  be 
introduced  in  proportion  to  the  interest  and  passion 
of  the  words.'  And,  above  all,  that  he  thought  it 
'  necessary  to  avoid  too  great  a  disparity  between 
the  Recitative,  and  the  Air  of  a  dialogue,  so  as  not 
to  break  the  sense  of  a  period,  or  awkwardly  inter- 
rupt the  progress  and  animation  of  a  Scene.' 

These  were  golden  maxims.  They  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  system  upon  which  Peri  based  his 
Euridice,  in  1600,  and  Monteverde  his  Orfeo,  in 
1607.  But,  they  had  long  been  forgotten,  notwith- 
standing Marcello's  vigorous  protest  against  their 
neglect,  in  1720;*  and,  in  reviving  them,  Gluck 
infused  new  life  into  a  glorious  Art-form  which 
was  fast  perishing  from  inanition.  We  shall  see, 
later  on,  that  another  great  genius  has  done  the 
same  good  service  to  Art,  in  our  own  day ;  and,  not 
without  urgent  need  :  for,  the  abuses  of  which  Gluck 
complained  are  as  prevalent,  now,  as  they  were  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  no  half-hearted 
reformer  is  strong  enough  to  fight  against  them. 
*  See  p.  194. 


256  Iphegdnie  en  Aulide.       [a.d.  1774. 

The  coldness  witli  which  Alceste  and  Faride  ed 
Elena  were  received,  at  Vienna,  and  the  violent 
antagonism  manifested  by  the  public  to  the  great 
artistic  truths  upon  which  they  were  based, 
prompted  Grluck  to  seek  for  more  sympathising 
audiences  elsewhere.  The  Bailli  du  Eollet,  an 
attache  of  the  French  Embassy  at  Vienna,  furnished 
him  with  an  admirable  libretto,  entitled  Iphegenie  en 
Aulide,  founded  upon  Racine's  well-known  Tragedy, 
and,  of  course,  written  in  French.  In  this  im- 
perishable work,  Gluck  put  forth  all  his  strength, 
and  carried  out  his  principles  to  their  fullest  logical 
conclusion,  without  fear  or  restraint.  Through  the 
all  powerful  protection  of  Marie  Antoinette,  this 
work,  written  in  1772,  was  performed,  for  the  first 
time,  at  the  Academic  de  Musique,  April  19,  1774; 
and,  in  spite  of  many  bitter  jealousies,  and  almost 
insurmountable  difficulties,  achieved  an  immense 
success.  It  was  followed,  on  Aug.  2,  in  the  same 
year,  by  a  French  version  of  Orphee  et  Eurydice, 
after  the  performance  of  which  Marie  Antoinette 
granted  the  Composer  a  pension  of  6000  francs, 
with  promise  of  a  similar  sum  for  every  new  work 
he  produced  in  the  French  capital.  By  command 
of  his  generous  patroness,  he  adapted  two  of  his 
old  works,  Le  Poirier,  and  Cythere  assiegee,  to  the 
French  Stage,  and  produced  them  at  the  Court 
Theatre,  at  Versailles,  in  1775.    A  French  version 


A.D.  1779.]       IphegSnie  en  Tauride.  257 

of  Alceste  was  produced,  at  Paris,  in  1776  ;  and,  in 
1777,  Gluck  composed  Ms  Armide.    The  success  of 
this  beautiful  Opera  was  unbounded.    But,  at  this 
juncture,  the  Composer  was  called  upon  to  contend 
with  a  very  powerful  rival.    Piccini,  protected  by 
a  large  party  of  Gluck's  most  bitter  antagonists, 
arrived  at  Paris,  in  1776;  and,  in  1878,  produced 
an  immense  effect  with  his  first  French  Opera, 
Roland,    Two  parties,  called  the  GlucJcistes,  and 
Piccviistes,  now  organised  a  bitter  feud  ;  and  even 
surpassed,  in  their  violence,  the  excesses  committed 
by  the  Buffonistes,  and  Antibiiffonistes,^  during  the 
earlier  half  of  the   century.    The    chief   of  the 
Ghicldstes  was  the  Abbe  Arnaud.    The  Piccinistes 
were  led   by  Marmontel.    The  directors  of  the 
Academic  de  Musique  endeavoured  to  turn  the 
dispute  to  profitable  account,  by  engaging  Gluck 
and  Piccini  to  write  each  an  Opera  on  the  same 
subject — Ijjhegenie  en  Tauride.    Gluck' s  Opera  was 
produced,  May  18,  1779,  with  extraordinary  success. 
It  is,  indeed,  finer,  if  possible,  than  Iphegenie  en 
Aulide,  and  abounds  with  passages  of  irresistible 
tragic  power.    The  production  of  Piccini' s  Iphegenie 
en  Tauride  was  delayed  until  Jan.  23,  1781,  by 
which  time  Gluck's  clief  d'a3uvre  had  completely 
made  its  mark.     Nevertheless,  it  was  fairly  re- 
ceived, and  was  performed,  in  all,  seventeen  times. 

'  See  p.  204. 

S 


Echo  et  Narcisse.  [a.d.  1779. 


Piccini  was  a  really  good  composer  in  the  old 
Italian  style  ;  but  it  was  madness  to  bring  him  into 
rivalship  with  his  great  contemporary. 

Gluck's  last  French  Opera  was  Eclio  et  Narcisse, 


Fig.  39. 

CHEISTOPH  WILLIBALD,  EITTEE  VON  GLUCZ. 

produced  Sept.  21,  1779.  This  was  not  nearly  so 
successful  as  his  former  works,  though  it  contained 
many  beauties.  It  was  to  have  been  followed  by 
Les  Dana'ides ;  but,  while  engaged  upon  this,  the 


A.D.  1785.]  Death  of  Gill ck.  259 

Composer  was  seized  with  an  attack  of  apoplexy, 
from  whicli  lie  recovered,  in  time,  though  it  com- 
pelled him  to  transfer  the  libretto  to  his  pupil, 
Salieri,  and  to  retire,  for  rest,  to  Vienna,  where  he 
died,  from  the  effects  of  a  similar  attack,  Nov.  15, 
1785. 

The  influence  of  Gluck's  reform  upon  Dramatic  Art 
has  proved  to  be  indelible.  Even  in  France,  it  deter- 
mined the  style  of  Mehul,  and  more  than  one  of  the 
greatest  composers  of  a  later  period.  But  it  is  in  his 
own  country  that  his  labours  have  been  most  justly 
appreciated.  Notwithstanding  the  early  rejection 
of  his  principles,  at  Vienna,  they  were  afterwards 
unhesitatingly  adopted  ;  and  nowhere  more  cordially 
than  in  the  great  Viennese  School,  of  which  they 
afterwards  formed  one  of  the  strongest  character- 
istics. And,  in  truth,  it  has  long  since  been  clearly 
proved,  that,  except  upon  these  principles,  no 
rational  School  of  Dramatic  Music  can  continue  to 
exist. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


FEANZ  JOSEPH  HATDJf. 

The  work  effected  by  Hadyn  for  Instrumental  Music 
was  greater,  in  one  respect,  even  than  that  wrought 
by  Gluck  for  the  Opera ;  since  it  was  not  merely  a 
regeneration,  but  an  entirely  new  form  of  develop- 
ment. And  yet,  with  all  its  novelty,  this  form  of 
development  was  based  upon  existing  materials ;  and 
conclusively  proved  the  immense  amount  of  study 
which  its  author  must  have  bestowed  upon  the  works 
of  the  Great  Masters  who  had  gone  before  him. 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn  was  born,  March  31,  1732, 
at  Hohrau,  in  a  little  house  in  the  Market  Place, 
still  standing,  though  partially  rebuilt.  He  had  not 
long  entered  his  sixth  year,  when  his  cousin,  Joseph 
Mathias  Frankh,  attracted  by  his  beautiful  Treble 
Voice,  persuaded  his  father  to  let  him  study  Music, 
and  himself  gave  him  his  first  lessons.  Two  years 
later,  Georg  von  Reutter,  Court-Composer  at  Vienna, 
and  Kapellmeister  at  S.  Stephen's,  offered  him  a  place 
in  his  Choir,  and,  in  1740,  admitted  him  to  the 


A.D.  1759.]     Haydn  s  first  Symphony .  261 

privileges  of  tlie  Cantorei,  attached  to  the  Cathedral. 
Here  his  education,  as  a  vocalist,  was  completed ; 
but,  for  Composition,  he  was  thrown  almost  entirely 
upon  the  resources  of  his  own  natural  talent.  He 
quitted  the  Choir,  on  the  breaking  of  his  voice,  in 
1748,  when  his  place,  as  leading  Chorister,  was  taken 
by  his  brother  Michael.  For  some  time  after  this, 
he  suffered  terrible  privations,  which,  however,  in 
no  wise  damped  his  ardour.  He  studied  profoundly, 
without  help  of  any  kind,  beyond  that  which  he  ob- 
tained from  the  precepts  contained  in  Fux's  Gradnsad 
Parnassum.  In  1752,  he  composed  his  earliest  Mass 
in  F,^  and,  in  the  same  year,  his  first  dramatic 
work,  De7'  Krumme  Teufel,  was  produced,  at  the 
Stadttheatre.  About  this  time,  too,  he  made  acquain- 
tance with  Metastasio,  through  whom  he  obtained 
some  pupils ;  and,  also,  with  Porpora,  who  engaged 
him  as  his  Accompanyist,  and  taught  him  his 
method.  But,  his  best  friend  was  Karl  Joseph, 
Edlen  von  Fiirnberg,  for  whom  he  composed  his 
first  Quartet,  in  1755.  In  1759,  he  was  appointed 
Musical  Director,  and  Composer  of  Chamber-Music, 
to  Count  Ferdinand  Maximilian  Morzin,  for  whom, 
in  1759,  he  wrote  his  earliest  Symphony — a  very 
simple  one,  in  D,  not  included  in  any  of  the  usual 
editions.  His  life  was  now  a  comparatively  pros- 
perous one ;  and  his  future  prospects  appeared  so 

^  Generally  knoTVTi,  in  England,  as  Xo.  XL 


262  Prince  Esterhazy,    [a.d.  i  761-1773. 

tempting  to  the  outer  world,  that  he  was  cajoled 
into  marrying  a  woman,  three  years  his  senior, 
whom  he  had  never  loved,  and  whose  heartless  dis- 
position embittered  the  best  part  of  his  otherwise 
happy  life. 

On  the  dispersal  of  Count  Morzin's  Orchestra,  in 
1761,  Haydn  entered  the  service  of  Prince  Paul 
Anton  Esterhazy,  who,  dying  in  1762,  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Mcolaus,  surnamed  '  the  Magnificent,' 
a  nobleman  of  refined  taste,  and  generous  disposition, 
who  at  once  engaged  the  young  Composer  as  his 
second  Kapellmeister,  under  the  almost  super- 
annuated Werner,  and  advanced  him  to  the  grade  of 
sole  Kapellmeister,  on  Werner's  death,  in  1766. 

Haydn  was  now  provided  for,  for  life.  He 
directed  the  Prince's  Orchestra,  at  Vienna,  Eisen- 
stadt,  and  the  new  Palace  of  Esterhaz,  on  the 
Einsiedler-See,  where  the  family  resided  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year ;  composing  for  the  Chapel, 
the  Chamber-Concerts,  and  the  two  large  private 
Theatres,  one  intended  for  the  performance  of 
Operas  and  other  dramatic  pieces,  and  the  other, 
for  a  company  of  Marionettes,  the  machinery  of 
which  was  brought  to  extraordinary  perfection. 
Haydn  was  on  the  best  of  terms  with  his  munificent 
patron ;  and,  when  the  Empress,  Maria  Theresia, 
visited  Esterhaz,  in  1773,  he  composed  an  Opera — 
-L'  Infedelta  delusa — a  Marionette  Piece — Philemon 


A.D.  1 791.]        Salaman  s  Concerts,  263 

und  Baucis — and  a  new  Symphony — now  known  as 
the  Maria  Theresia — to  honour  the  occasion.  In 
1779,  the  great  Theatre  was  burned  down,  and  the 
Prince  stayed  in  Paris  while  a  new  one  was  built. 
It  was  on  the  occasion  of  his  departure,  that  Haydn 
composed  his  Farewell  Symphony — Der  Ahschied — 
during  the  Finale  of  which  the  performers  put  out 
their  lights,  one  by  one,  and  leave  the  Orchestra, 
until  two  Violins  only  are  left. 

Prince  Mcolaus  Esterhazy  died  in  1 790,  leaving 
Haydn  an  annual  pension  of  1000  florins.  His 
successor.  Prince  Anton,  dismissed  the  '  Kapelle,' 
but  added  400  florins  to  Haydn's  pension.  The 
conscientious  Kapellmeister,  freed  from  the  duties 
he  had  so  honourably  fulfilled  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  now  established  himself  in 
Vienna;  but,  towards  the  close  of  the  year  1790,  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Salaman  to  direct  a 
series  of  Concerts  in  London,  where  he  arrived  on 
New  Year's  Day,  1791.  It  was  for  the  Concerts  of 
this  year  that  he  composed  the  six  first  Grand 
Symphonies,  now  known  as  the  Salaman  Set — the 
finest  and  most  elaborate  that  he  ever  wrote.  His 
reception  in  London  was  more  brilliant  than  almost 
any  other  on  record.  He  remained  in  this  country 
until  June,  1792  ;  reaching  Frankfort  in  time  for 
the  Coronation  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  and 
returning  to  Vienna  in  July.    Towards  the  close  of 


264  Haydn  in  London,    [a.d.  i  791-1794. 

tlie  year,  Beethoven  came  to  him  for  instruction  : 
and  he  continued  to  give  him  lessons  until  the  end 
of  December,  1793  ;  basing  his  course  of  instruction 
in  Counterpoint  on  Fux's  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  In 
spite  of  all  that  has  been  said  to  the  contrary,  it  is 
certain  that  Beethoven  entertained  the  deepest 
respect  for  him  ;  while  the  young  Mozart  loved  him 
with  all  his  heart,  and  always  spoke  of  him  as 
'Papa  Haydn.'  Madame  Haydn  did,  indeed,  try 
to  sow  the  seeds  of  discord  between  the  veteran 
Composer  and  his  youthful  friend;  but  in  vain. 
Her  behaviour,  during  Haydn's  absence  in  England, 
was  mean  to  the  last  degree.  She  tried  to  worry 
him,  by  letters,  into  the  purchase  of  a  house  in  which 
she  might  live  comfortably,  when  she  was  'left  a 
widow  1 '  But,  happily,  Haydn  survived  her  by 
many  years. 

Haydn  paid  a  second  visit  to  England,  in  1794. 
Prince  Anton,  who,  notwithstanding  the  dissolution 
of  the  Kapelle,  remained  deeply  attached  to  him, 
reluctantly  bade  him  farewell,  and  died  three  days 
after  bis  departure.  During  this  visit,  he  completed 
the  set  of  Tivelve  Grand  Symphonies,  the  first  six 
only  of  which  had  been  produced  on  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  London.  On  this  occasion,  he  resided 
at  No.  1,  Bury  Street,  S.  James',  where  he  received 
a  constant  succession  of  distinguished  visitors ;  for 
he  was  now,  if  possible,  more  popular  than  ever. 


A.D.  1798-1799.]  The  Creation,     The  Seasons.  265 

The  Prince  of  Wales  presented  him  to  the  King, 
who,  in  turn,  presented  him  to  the  Queen ;  and  he 
was  constantly  invited  to  Court,  with  every  mark  of 
honour  and  respect.  He  returned  to  Vienna,  in 
August,  1795;  hurrying  his  departure  in  response 
to  an  invitation  from  the  reigning  Prince  Esterhazy, 
who  wished  to  reorganise  the  Kapelle  dissolved  by 
his  predecessor.  This  Prince  treated  him  no  less 
generously  than  the  former  Prince  Nicolaus  had  done, 
and  he  repaid  his  hberality  with  devoted  and  un- 
tiring service.  In  January,  1797,  he  composed  the 
famous  Hymn,  Goit  erlialte  Franz  den  Kaiser,  which 
has,  ever  since,  been  accepted  as  the  National  Anthem 
of  Austria.  But,  his  two  greatest  works  were  yet 
to  appear.  In  1797,  he  composed  The  Creation,  the 
words  of  which  were  translated,  from  the  English  of 
Milton,  (with  extensive  alterations),  by  the  Baron 
van  Swieten.  The  Oratorio  was  first  privately  per- 
formed, at  the  Schwarzenberg  Palace,  in  1798, 
and  publicly  repeated,  at  the  Xational  Theatre,  in 
1799.  The  Seasons — adapted,  by  the  Baron  van 
Swieten,  from  Thomson's  Poem — was  completed 
in  the  same  year,  and  performed,  first,  at  the 
Schwarzenberg  Palace,  and  afterwards  in  the  Redou- 
tensaal.  This  was  his  last  great  work.  His  con- 
stitution was  already  broken  completely  down,  by 
old  age.  His  last  days  were  embittered  by  the 
chagrin  he  felt,  on  seeing  Vienna  occupied  by  the 


266  The  Death  of  Haydn,       [a.d.  1809. 

French  republican  army.  And,  on  May  31,  1809, 
he  passed  sadly  away,  after  a  long  and  blameless 
life,  during  the  course  of  which  he  secured  the  warm 


affection  of  all  with  whom  he  was  brought  into  con- 
tact, and  wrought  incalculable  services  to  the  Art 
he  loved. 

The  great  work  of  Haydn's  life  was,  the  gradual 


A.D.  1 755-1809.]     The  ^  Sonata-Form!  267 

development  of  the  constructional  scheme  now  gene- 
rally described  as  the  '  Sonata-Form.'  Though  the 
details  of  this  were  entirely  dictated  by  the  bold 
originality  of  his  genius,  the  main  lines  of  the  design 
were  based  upon  the  already  existent  '  Dance  Tune  ' 
— whether  Gavotte,  Bourree,  Minuet,  Branle,  or 
Allemande — which,  in  so  many  instances,  consisted 
of  two  sections,  the  first  ending  with  a  Perfect 
Cadence  in  the  Dominant  of  the  principal  Key,  while 
the  second  concluded  with  a  similar  passage,  in  the 
principal  Key  itself.  Many  elaborations  of  this 
simple  plan  had  been  made,  before  the  time  of  Haydn, 
by  Domenico  Scarlatti,  Handel,  Bach,  and,  especially, 
by  Bach's  most  talented  son,  Karl  Philip  Emanuel. 
But  it  was  reserved  for  Haydn  to  strike  out  the  idea 
of  enriching  the  first  part  with  a  distinct  Second 
Subject,  in  the  Dominant — or  Relative  Major — of 
the  principal  Key,  instead  of  ending  it  with  a  mere 
Modulation  to  the  complementary  Scale;  and,  of 
re-introducing  this,  transposed  to  the  principal  Key, 
after  the  formal  repetition  of  the  First  or  opening 
Subject,  in  the  second  section.  In  this  consisted  the 
essence  of  the  Sonata-Form.  But,  in  its  more  fully 
developed  phases,  the  Second  Subject  was  frequently 
supplemented  by  a  Third,  or  occasionally  even  a 
Fourth  Motivo,  in  the  same  Key.  The  second  part 
then  introduced  a  discussion  on  the  Subjects  already 
stated  in  the  first  section — technically  called,  the 
'  working  *  of  the  various  Motivi — accompanied  by 


268  The  '  Sonata- Form!    [a.d.  1 755-1809. 

Modulations  into  more  or  less  remote  Keys,  tending 
to  increase  the  interest  of  tlie  reprise,  or  formal 
return  to  the  First  Subject  in  its  original  Key. 
And  the  whole  concluded  with  a  Coda,  or  Peroration, 
in  which  the  cumulative  interest  of  the  Movement 
was  brought  to  its  natural  climax. 

This,  then,  was  the  legacy  bequeathed  by  Haydn 
to  his  beloved  Art — a  legacy  which  has  been  accepted 
with  gratitude  by  all  the  most  eminent  Instrumental 
Composers  who  have,  from  time  to  time,  succeeded 
him,  and  of  which  no  Great  Master,  from  the  days 
of  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  to  those  of  Wagner  and 
Brahms,  has  neglected  to  avail  himself.  Each 
Master  has,  indeed,  modified  the  design,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  dictates  of  his  own  genius.  Mozart 
accepted  it  frankly,  but,  with  so  much  elasticity  of 
conduct,  that  he  was  able  to  develope  it  into  one  of 
the  grandest  forms  it  has  ever  assumed — the  Or- 
chestral Fugue,  as  exhibited  in  the  Jujnter  Sym- 
phony, and  the  Overture  to  Die  Zauherflote,  More- 
over, he  accentuated,  even  more  strongly  than 
Haydn  had  done,  certain  points  of  construction, 
consisting  of  a  few  simple  Chords,  frequently 
reiterated,  in  order  to  prepare  the  ear  more  forcibly 
for  the  Key  in  which  a  new  Subject  was  to  appear. 
Beethoven  invested  the  form  with  the  Romantic 
element,  and  enveloped  Mozart's  simple  Chords  with 
a  network  of  beautiful  ornamentation,  which  added 


A.D.  I  755-1809.]     The  ^  Sonata- Form'  269 

an  inexpressible  charm  to  the  design,  and  immeasur- 
ably increased  its  general  interest.    In  this,  he  has 
been  followed  by  almost  all  later  Composers,  some 
of  whom  have  so  artfully  concealed  the  construc- 
tional points  which  Mozart  never  cared  to  disguise, 
that  incautious  students  have  sometimes  failed  to 
discern  in  them  the  veritable  'pillars  of  the  house,' 
and   have  accused  Mozart  of   poverty  of  style, 
because  he  left  them  boldly  exposed  to  view,  as  a 
great  Architect  delights  to  expose  the  piers  upon 
which  the  tower  of  his  Cathedral  depends  for  its 
support.    But,  woe  to  the  neophyte  who  mistakes 
the  true  office  of  these  supposed  '  weak  points '  in 
Mozart's  most  perfect  designs  !    Who,  seeking  to 
construct  the  ornament,  instead  of  ornamenting  the 
construction,  builds  an  edifice  which  must  necessarily 
crumble  beneath  his  touch.    If  Eichard  Wagner,  in 
the  most  romantic  of  his  instrumental  Preludes — 
where,  if  ever,  the  sense  of  dramatic  propriety  might 
be  supposed  to  cover  everything — never  ventures 
to  ignore  the  constructional  element,  however  deftly 
he  may  conceal  it  beneath  the  rich  fancies  of  his  in- 
exhaustible imagination,  surely  it  is  not  open  to  any 
of  us  to  neglect  the  salutary  precautions  with  which 
Haydn  hedged  round  his  grand  invention,  and  which 
no  great  Composer  of  later  date  has  thought  it 
beneath  his  dignity  to  follow. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


WOLFGANG  AMADEUS  MOZAKT. 


Hayd^^'s  great  successor,  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart, 
was  born,  at  Salzburg,  Januaiy  27tli,  1756  ;  and  was 
educated  entirely  by  his  father,  Leopold  Mozart,  an 
accomplished  violinist,  in  the  service  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg.  At  three  years  old,  he  com- 
posed little  pieces,  some  of  which  are  still  preserved 
in  his  sister  Maria's  music-book.  Soon  afterwards, 
he  tried  to  write  a  Concerto ;  and,  when  his  father 
told  him  that  it  was  too  diflBcult  for  performance, 
he  replied,  that  no  one  would  attempt  to  play  a 
Concerto  without  first  diligently  practising  it.  He 
first  performed  in  public,  at  the  age  of  five  years ; 
and,  in  1762,  the  father  took  his  two  children, 
Wolfgang,  and  Maria,  on  a  tour,  durmg  the  course 
of  which  they  played  before  most  of  the  Sovereigns 
of  Germany.  The  little  '  Wolfert's'  personal  beauty, 
and  charming  disposition,  endeared  him  to  everyone. 
The  Emperor,  Francis  I.,  sat  by  his  side,  while  he 
played,  and  called  him  his  '  little  Magician and 


A.D.  1 756- 1 769.]     The  little  '  Wolfert. 


271 


the  Arcliducliess  Marie  Antoinette  was  so  kind  to 
him,  that,  in  his  innocent  prattle,  he  promised  to 
marry  her,  when  he  '  grew  up.'  The  family  started 
on  a  second  journey,  in  1763  ;  and,  in  1764,  Leopold 
Mozart  brought  his  wife  and  children  to  London, 
where  they  lodged  in  Frith  Street,  Soho.  On  April  2  7, 
and  May  19,  Wolfert  played,  with  immense  success, 
before  the  Royal  Family;  on  June  5,  he  gave  a 
public  Concert ;  and,  on  June  29,  he  played  a  Con- 
certo at  Ranelagh.  During  this  visit,  he  published 
a  third  set  of  Sonatas,  dedicated  to  the  Queen  ;  and 
composed  an  Anthem  for  four  voices,  entitled  God 
is  our  refuge,  the  autograph  of  which  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

On  September  17,  1764,  Wolfert  was  taken  to  the 
Hague,  where  he  attempted  his  first  Oratorio.  In 
1766,  he  returned  to  Salzburg,  and  diligently  studied 
Haydn's  favourite  text-book,  the  famous  Gradus  ad 
Parnassum.  In  1767,  he  revisited  Vienna,  and,  by 
command  of  the  Emperor,  Joseph  II.,  composed  an 
Opera,  entitled  La  finta  semplice,  which  failed, 
through  a  miserable  cabal,  though,  on  its  repre- 
sentation at  the  Palace  of  the  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg, it  was  so  well  received,  that  it  gained  for  the 
young  Composer  the  appointment  of  Maestro  di 
Cappella.  The  post,  however,  was  an  honorary 
one. 

In  1769,  Wolfert,  now  nearly  fourteen  years  old, 


272  Mozart  in  Italy .  [a.d.  1769. 

was  taken,  by  his  father,  to  Italy,  where  he 
gained  knowledge  and  experience  every  day,  and 
found  kind  friends  everywhere.  Arriving  in  Rome 
during  Holy  Week,  he  heard  the  famous  Miserere 
sung,  in  the  Sisfcine  Chapel,  and  wrote  it  down  from 
memory,  concealing  the  copy  in  his  cocked  hat. 
In  June,  the  Pope  invested  him  with  the  Order 
of  the  Golden  Spur^ — that  previously  conferred 
upon  Gluck.  In  July,  he  visited  Bologna,  where  he 
was  admitted  to  the  rank  of  Oompositore,  at  the 
Accademia  filarmonica.  In  1770,  he  composed  an 
Opera — Mitridate,  Re  di  Ponto — for  the  Theatre  at 
Milan,  which,  in  spite  of  a  miserable  intrigue,  met 
with  extraordinary  success.  He  returned  to  Salz- 
burg, in  the  following  year ;  and,  in  1773,  composed, 
for  the  marriage  of  the  Archduke,  Ferdinand,  a 
Serenata — Ascanio  in  Alba — which  achieved  a  great 
success  at  Milan.  During  his  absence  from  Salz- 
burg, the  good  Archbishop  died ;  and  his  successor, 
Hieronymus,  Count  of  Colloredo,  proved  a  cruel 
enemy  to  the  young  Composer,  who,  however,  graced 
the  ceremonies  of  his  election  with  a  new  Opera,  II 
Sogno  di  Scipione,  In  October,  1773,  Wolfert  pro- 
duced another  Opera,  at  Milan,  entitled  Lucio  Silla, 
which  was  no  less  successful  than  Mitridate.  But, 
notwithstanding  these  brilliant  successes,  the  family 
suffered  from  grinding  poverty,  from  which  the 
^  Auratob  militce  eques. 


A.D.  1 78 1.]  Idomeneo. 


273 


new  Archbishop  made  no  attempt  to  rescue 
them. 

During  the  four  years  which  followed,  Mozart 
produced  two  new  Operas,  La  finta  Giardiniera,  and 
II  Be  Pastore,  besides  an  immense  number  of  Con- 
certos, Masses,  Symphonies,  Sonatas,  and  other  im- 
portant works.  In  1777,  he  started  on  a  new  pro- 
fessional tour,  very  much  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
Archbishop  ;  and,  while  on  his  travels,  fell  in  love 
with  a  promising  young  vocalist,  named  Aloysia 
AYeber,  who  afterwards  cruelly  jilted  him.  At  Paris, 
he  was  distressed  beyond  measure,  by  the  death  of 
his  mother ;  and,  on  his  return,  Aloysia  Weber  coldly 
dismissed  him,  while  the  Archbishop  was  with  diffi- 
culty induced  to  endow  his  honorary  appointment 
with  a  slender  stipend. 

For  the  Carnival  of  1781,  Mozart  was  engaged  to 
write  an  Opera,  at  Munich;  and  this  commission 
afforded  him  the  opportunity  of  producing  the  first 
of  the  long  series  of  dramatic  works  which  have 
since  been  accepted  as  the  most  perfect  Operas  in 
the  world.  The  piece — entitled,  Idomeneo,  Re  di 
Greta — was  written  in  closest  possible  accordance 
with  the  principles  laid  down  by  Griuck,  though 
there  is  strong  reason  for  believing  that  Mozart 
adopted  these  principles  from  intuition,  rather  than 
from  the  diligent  study  of  Alceste,  or  Iphegenie  en 
Aulide.    Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  he  was 

T 


2/4    Die  Entfiihrtrng  atls  dem  Serail.    [a.d.  1782. 

endowed,  by  Nature,  with  so  intense  a  perception  of 
dramatic  truth,  that  it  would  be  impossible,  in  any 
one  of  his  Operas,  to  point  out  a  Scene  in  which 
the  propriety  of  the  situation  has  been  sacrificed, 
even  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  a  legitimate 
musical  effect.  In  Idomeneo,  this  propriety  is  every- 
where so  conscientiously  observed,  that  the  work 
takes  rank,  with  Orfeo  and  Ijjhigenie  en  Tauride,  as 
an  example  of  the  truest  attainable  expression  of 
the  veritable  Dram  ma  per  la  onusica,  as  opposed  to 
the  conventional  Opera  seria,  in  which  the  exigencies 
of  the  situations  were  constantly  sacrificed  for  the 
sake  of  the  l\[usic,  and  even  for  more  unworthy 
motives.  Yet,  the  work  overflows  with  delicious 
Melody,  from  beginning  to  end ;  Melody  which  is 
rendered  the  more  captivating,  because  its  peculiar 
beauties  are  never  felt  to  be  out  of  place. 

On  hearing  of  the  triumphant  success  of  Idomeneo, 
the  Archbishop  summoned  Mozart  to  Vienna,  where 
his  tyranny  rendered  the  great  Composer's  position 
intolerable.  So  grossly  did  he  insult  his  un- 
offending Maestro  di  Capjjella,  that  Mozart  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  ill-paid  office,  though  he  had 
really  no  other  resources  at  command.  At  this  junc- 
ture, he  was  commanded,  by  the  Emperor,  to  write 
a  German  Opera — Die  Entfuhrung  aus  dem  SeraiP 

•  '  Known  also  as  Belmont  und  Constanze.  In  Italian,  // 
Seraglio. 


A.D.  1786.] 


Le  Nozze  di  Figaro. 


275 


— which  was  received,  with  acclamation,  in  1782, 
and  at  once  raised  German  Opera  to  the  rank 
which  Idomeneo  had  already  attained  for  its  Italian 
sister. 

Mozart's  next  step  was  a  very  unhappy  one. 
Rejected  by  Aloysia  Weber,  his  promised  wife,  he 
married  her  younger  sister,  Constance,  whose  thrift- 
less habits,  and  unintellectual  tastes,  led  him  hope- 
lessly into  debt,  and  made  his  home  a  very  unhappy 
one.  He  had,  however,  many  kind  friends.  With 
Gluck  he  was  on  terms  of  formal  courtesy,  only ; 
but  Haydn  loved  him  dearly.  Salieri,  however,  was 
jealous  of  his  fame,  and  hated  him  cordially. 

The  success  of  Die  Entfilhrung  led  to  the  pro- 
duction, at  the  Palace  of  Schonbrunn,  of  a  German 
Singspiel,  in  one  Act,  called  Der  SchauspieldireJdoo', 
first  performed  in  February,  1786.  Three  months 
later,  he  produced,  at  Prague,  his  delightful  Nozze 
di  Figaro,  the  libretto  of  which  was  based,  by  the 
Abbe  da  Ponte,  on  the  famous  drama  by  Beaumar- 
chais.  The  reception  of  this,  on  the  occasion  of  its 
first  performance  at  Vienna,  May  1,  1786,  was  so 
cold  as  to  amount  almost  to  a  failure ;  but,  at 
Prague,  it  was  received  with  unbounded  admiration, 
and  procured  for  Mozart  an  immediate  engagement 
to  produce  another  Opera,  for  the  ensuing  season. 
This  was  none  other  than  the  equally  marvellous 
II  don  Giovanni,  founded,  by  Da  Ponte,  upon  Tirso 

T  2 


276 


II  Don  Giovanni,         [a.d.  1787. 


de  Molina's  romantic  stor j,  El  Convidado  de  Piedra, 
so  cleverly  treated  bj  Moliere  in'  Le  Festin  de  Pierre.^ 
The  success  of  this,  when  first  produced,  October  29, 
1787,  fully  equalled  that  of  Le  JSfozze  di  Figaro  :  yet, 
on  its  reproduction  in  Vienna,  it  produced  far  less 
sensation  than  Salieri's  weak  and  soulless  Tar  are. 

In  the  following  year,  Mozart  was  appointed 
Kammercompositor  to  the  Emperor.  He  also 
conducted  the  Baron  van  Swieten's  Concerts — for 
which  he  supplied  '  Additional  Accompaniments  '  to 
Handel's  '  Messiah,^  and^las  and  Galatea — and  com- 
posed much  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  on  his 
own  account.  In  1790,  he  composed  Cosifantiifte, 
the  *run'  of  which  was  interrupted  by  the  Emperor's 
death;  and,  for  the  Coronation  of  the  new  Emperor, 
Leopold  II.,  he  was  commissioned  to  prepare  La 
Clemenza  di  Tito,  the  performance  of  which,  at 
Prague,  in  1792,  was  not  a  very  brilliant  success. 

Far  different  was  it  with  Die  Zauberflote,  begun,  at 
the  instance  of  the  manager,  Schikaneder,  in  1791, 
and  first  performed  on  the  30th  of  September.  This 
greatest  of  German  Operas  was  written  upon  an 
entirely  new  plan,  with  the  special  intention  of 
attracting  Freemasons ;  and  the  success  of  the 
attempt  fully  justified  the  rashness  of  the  venture. 
But,  the  Composer's  fitful  career  was  rapidly 
approaching  its  close.  While  he  was  at  work  on 
JDie  Zauberflote,  a  stranger  commissioned  him  to 


A.D.  1 791.]    Die  Zatidcrjiote.     The  Requiem.  277 


write  a  solemn  Ueqidem,  and  paid  liim  liberally  for 
it,  in  advance.  It  is  now  known  tliat  this  stranger 
was  the  steward  of  Count  Walsegg,  who  wished  to 


Fig.  41. 

WOLFGANG  AMADEUS  MOZAET. 

pass  off  the  work  as  his  own ;  but,  Mozart  believed 
that  the  messenger  had  been  sent  from  the  Other 
World  to  warn  him  of  his  approaching  end.   He  did 


278 


The  Death  of  Mozart,       [a.d.  1791. 


not  live  to  finish  the  Bjequiem^  but  gave  Siissmayer 
the  necessary  instructions  for  completing  the  Score 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  on  December  5, 
1791,  most  probably  from  typhoid  fever,  though  he 
believed  himself  poisoned,  and  that  so  firmly,  that 
Salieri  was  afterwards  suspected  of  having  procured 
the  administration  of  the  fatal  dose.  To  the  eternal 
disgrace  of  his  friends,  the  public,  and  the  Imperial 
Court,  he  was  buried  in  a  pauper's  grave;  and, 
because  it  rained.  Van  Swieten,  Siissmayer,  and 
three  other  '  friends,'  turned  back  from  following 
him,  and  left  him  to  be  carried  to  his  last  home 
alone. 

The  inexpressible  charm  of  Mozart's  Music  leads 
us  to  forget  the  marvellous  learning  bestowed  upon 
its  construction.  We  have  already  considered  his 
Sonata-Forms,  and  the  infinite  power  of  his  Dramatic 
Music.  His  Sacred  Music,  though  less  florid  than 
Haydn's,  is  even  more  voluptuously  beautiful :  of 
perfect  purity,  yet,  in  accordance  with  the  invariable 
tradition  of  the  School  of  Vienna,  lacking  the 
devotional  seriousness  of  Palestrina,  no  less  than  the 
sterner  grandeur  of  Handel,  and  Bach.  But,  in 
this,  and  all  his  works,  whether  intended  for  per- 
formance in  the  Churcb,  the  Theatre,  or  the  Concert- 
Eoom,  we  notice  an  individuahty  of  style  which  can 
never,  by  any  possibility,  be  mistaken. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 

The  last  of  the  Seven  Great  Giants,  Ludwig  van 
Beethoven,  was  born,  at  Bonn,  December  IGtla,  1770, 
and  received  the  elements  of  his  musical  education 
from  his  father,  Johann  van  Beethoven,  a  Court- 
Musician,  in  the  service  of  Max  Franz,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  the  brother  of  the  Emperor  Joseph. 
He  afterwards  took  lessons  from  Pfeiffer,  Van  der 
Eden,  and  Neefe ;  and  published  his  first  composi- 
tion— some  Variations  for  the  Pianoforte — in  1783. 
In  1785,  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Court-Organist ; 
and,  in  1787,  the  Archbishop  sent  him  to  Vienna, 
where  he  took  a  few  lessons  from  Mozart.  Return- 
ing, soon  afterwards,  to  Bonn,  he  studied,  for  some 
time,  alone ;  but,  in  1792,  he  again  visited  Vienna, 
and  there  completed  his  education,  under  Haydn, 
Albrechtsberger,  and  Salieri.  His  skill  on  the  Piano- 
forte, and  extraordinary  gift  of  improvisation,  now 
earned  him  a  brilliant  reputation ;  and  he  rapidly 
gained  the  friendship  of  the  Archduke  Rudolf,  the 


28o      Beethoven  s  Three  Styles,    [a.d.  i  792-1827. 

Prince  and  Princess  Lichnowski,  Prince  Lobkowitz, 
the  Baron  van  Swieten,  Count  Fries,  the  Princess 
Odeschalclii,  the  Baroness  Ertmann,  Count  Wald- 
stein,  and  many  other  well-known  leaders  of  the 
world  of  fashion,  and  men  of  genius.  It  was  at 
this  epoch  that  he  produced  the  works  now  said  to 
belong  to  his  First  Period — The  Three  Pianoforte 
Trios  designated  as  Op.  1 ;  the  First  Pianoforte 
Concerto ;  the  First  and  Second  Symphonies,  in  0, 
and  D;  the  Septwor ;  the  most  beautiful  of  his 
Songs,  Adelaide  ;  and  many  other  early  works. 

The  Second  Period  begins,  properly,  with  the 
Symphony,  No.  3  (Froica)  in  E|, ;  and  includes  the 
later  Symphonies,  'No,  4,  in  Bb-,  No.  5,  in  C  Minor, 
No.  6,  in  F  (The  Pastorale),  No.  7,  in  A  Major, 
and  No.  8,  in  F.  Also,  his  only  Opera,  Fidelio  ;  the 
Music  to  G-oethe's  Fgmont ;  the  Pianoforte  Concertos, 
in  Gr  Major,  and  El?;  the  Violin  Concerto;  the 
Mass  in  C ;  Oratorio,  Christus  am  Oelherge ;  and 
a  great  number  of  his  best-known  works. 

To  the  Third  Period  belong  the  works  of  his 
later  life— the  mighty  creations  which,  in  some 
respects,  are,  even  now,  but  very  imperfectly  under- 
stood, and  in  the  strength  of  which  he  stands  un- 
rivalled among  Composers  of  Instrumental  Music, 
and  of  a  certain  form  of  Choral  Music,  also.  The 
greatest  of  these  works  are,  the  Missa  solemnis  ; 
the   9th,   or   Choral   Symphony ;   the  Pianoforte 


A.D.  1802.]       Beethoveiis  Deafness.  281 

Sonatas,  Op.  101 — 111  ;  and  the  Quartets,  for 
Stringed  Instruments,  Op.  127 — 135. 

Between  the  Second  and  Third  Periods,  Beethoven 


Fig.  42. 
LUDWIG  TAN  BEETHOTEN, 


grew  hopelessly  deaf — a  circumstance  to  which  cer- 
tain critics,  unable  to  grasp  the  immensity  of  his 
later  works,  have  attributed  their  marked  difference 


282  The  Death  of  Beethoven .     [ a  .  d  .  1827. 

from  those  of  the  Second  Style.  The  evil  began  in 
1797  ;  and  reached  its  worst  phase  before  1802, 
after  which  period  the  great  Composer  never  heard 
a  sound. 

In  addition  to  this  terrible  aflfliction,  he  was 
driven  almost  to  despair,  by  the  ill-conduct  of  a 
worthless  nephew,  whom  he  loved  as  his  own  son, 
and  who,  in  return,  disgraced  his  family  by  the 
vilest  vices  and  extravagance.  Never  having  been 
married,  he  hoped  to  find,  in  this  wretched  scape- 
grace, a  consolation  for  the  loneliness  of  his  dreary 
hearth  ;  but,  his  kindness  was  rewarded  by  persistent 
ingratitude,  which,  to  the  last,  he  abstained  from 
visiting  with  the  punishment  it  deserved. 

Beethoven  died,  during  the  continuance  of  a 
terrific  thunderstorm,  on  March  27th,  1827.  He 
had  never  been  a  rich  man ;  and  his  last  moments 
were  much  comforted  by  a  remittance  of  lOOZ.,  sent 
to  him,  from  London,  by  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
for  which  he  contemplated  the  composition  of  a 
10th  Symphony. 

In  his  later  works,  the  Eomantic  School  reaches 
depths  which  will  probably  remain,  for  ever,  to  a 
certain  extent  unfathomable;  but  the  glories  of 
which,  if  never  destined  to  be  perfectly  understood, 
as  he  himself  understood  them,  can,  nevertheless,  he 
so  clearly  felt,  by  every  true  and  earnest  artist, 
that  they  leave  nothing  to  be  desired,  and,  para- 


A.D.  1827.]    BeethoverCs  latest  Works,  283 

doxiciil  as  it  may  seem  to  say  so,  notHing  to  be 
misinterpreted;  for,  it  is  not  always  necessary  that 
tlie  very  greatest  Works  of  Art  should  be  interpreted 
in  exact  accordance  with  the  idea  entertained  by 
their  creator  at  the  moment  he  kindled  them  into 
life.  They  are  so  great,  that  they  frequently  admit 
of  several  distinct  interpretations,  all  equally 
sublime  :  and,  provided  the  intelligent  listener  really 
feels  their  ineffable  beauty,  he  cannot  very  easily 
invest  them  with  an  unworthy  meaning.  These 
remarks,  though  applicable  to  all  works  of  the 
very  highest  class,  apply  pre-eminently  to  the  later 
productions  of  Beethoven;  and  clearly  show  the 
immensity  of  the  boon  he  has  conferred  upon  Artists 
of  a  later  generation.  There  can  never  be  a  time 
when  these  works  will  grow  '  old-fashioned ;'  for, 
like  the  deathless  Compositions  of  Palestrina,  Handel, 
Bach,  Gluck,  Haydn,  and  Mozart — like  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare,  and  the  Poems  of  Homer,  and  Yirgil — 
like  the  Statues  of  Phidias,  and  the  Pictures  of 
Raffaelle — they  speak  a  language  which  must  of 
necessity  make  itself  understood,  till  the  end  of 
time.  They  address  themselves  directly  to  the 
heart :  and  the  heart  is  the  same,  in  all  ages. 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PIAXO-FOETE. 

It  is  now  time  that  we  should  say  a  few  words 
concerning  the  Instrument,  which  has  exercised  a 
more  potent  influence  than  any  other,  upon  the 
present  condition  of  Music,  and  which  bids  fair  to 
continue  that  influence,  for  many  years  to  come. 

Though  the  Grand  Piano-forte^  may  be  fairly 
described  as  the  immediate  successor  of  the  Harpsi- 
chord, its  principle  of  action  rests  on  a  very 
different  foundation.  For,  the  Harpsichord,  as  we 
have  already  shown,^  is,  virtually,  nothing  more 
than  a  highly- developed  Psaltery,  played  by  keys, 
each  of  which  sets  in  motion  a  separate  Plectrum, 
consisting  of  a  wooden  Jack  armed  with  a  finely- 
pointed  slip  of  quill :  while  the  Piano-forte  repre- 
sents a  still  more  highly- developed  Dulcimer,^  the 
strings  whereof  are  struck  by  miniature  Hammers, 

^  Ital.  Piano  a  coda.    Fr.  Piano  a  queue.    Germ.  Flilgel.  Eng. 
Gi'and  Piano-forte. 
2  See  page  139. 

'  See  pp.  143 — 144.    Also  p.  144,  note. 


A.D.  1709--1731.]    Bartolomeo  Crisiofori,  285 

covered  with  leather,  or  with  a  pecuHar  kind  of 
felt. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  Piano-forte  that  has 
hitherto  been  discovered  is  contained  in  two  letters, 
dated  June  27,  and  December  31,  1598,  and  ad- 
dressed to  Alfonso  II.,  Duke  of  Modena,  by  Hippolito 
Cricca  detto  Paliarino  (or,  Pagliarini),  the  maker  of 
the  Instrument.  But,  the  earliest  Piano-fortes  of 
which  any  certain  description  has  been  preserved 
to  us  are  those  made,  at  Florence,  by  Bartolomeo 
Cristofori — who  is  generally  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  the  Instrument — between  the  years  1709, 
and  1731.  Two  only  of  these  venerable  Instruments 
are  known  to  be  still  in  existence ;  one,  dated  1 720, 
and  the  other,  1726. 

Cristofori  was  succeeded,  in  Italy,  by  Giovanni 
Ferrini,  Geronimo  of  Florence,  and  Gherardi  of 
Padua.  In  France,  the  invention  was  claimed,  in 
1716,  by  Marius.  In  Germany,  a  similar  claim  was 
made,  between  1717,  and  1721,  by  Schroeter,  who 
repeated  his  declaration  in  1738,  and,  again,  in 
3  763.  But,  apart  from  the  question  of  priority  of 
invention — which  must  necessarily  be  decided  in 
favour  of  Cristofori — the  best  German  maker  of  the 
period  was  undoubtedly  Gottfried  Silbermann,  who 
died  in  1753,  and  some  of  whose  Instruments  made 
for  Frederick  the  Great  are  still  in  existence.* 

*  See  p.  242.    Forkel  tells  us  that  Frederick  secured  fifteen  of 


286  Messrs.  Broadwood  and  Sons.  [a.d.  i  732-1885. 

In  England,  the  manufacture  of  the  Piano-forte 
was  brought  to  great  perfection,  at  a  very  early 
period,  by  Messrs.  John  Broadwood  and  Sons, 
and  Joseph  Kirkman,  the  successors  of  the  great 
Harpsichord  makers,  Burkhard  Shudi,  and  Jacob 
Kirchmann.  Improvements  were  also  made  by 
Stodart,  and  a  Dutchman,  named  Americus  Backers ; 
and,  in  1766 — or,  perhaps,  earlier — the  Square 
Piano-forte  ^  was  invented  by  Shudi' s  quondam  as- 
sistant, Johannes  Zumpe. 

The  number  of  later  improvements  introduced  by 
the  great  firms  we  have  mentioned,  and  others  too 
well  known  to  need  particularisation,  is  so  great, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  list  of 
them.  SuflSce  it  to  say,  that  the  Instrument  is  not 
allowed  to  rest,  even  in  its  present  state  of  per- 
fection ;  but  that,  every  year,  new  attempts  are 
made  to  increase  the  power  and  beauty  of  its  tone, 
and  the  excellence  and  durability  of  its  mechanism. 

For  the  Instrument  thus  slowly  developed  from 
the  humble  and  insignificant  Dulcimer,  some  of  the 
finest  Chamber-Music  in  existence  has  been  written. 
Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach,  [1714—1788],  the  great 
Sebastian's  second   son,   was   the   first  eminent 

these  beautiful  Instruments  ;  but,  only  three  have  been  discovered 
at  Potsdam. 

5  Ital.  Pianoforte  a  tavolino.  Fr.  Piano  carre.  Germ.  Tafel- 
formiges  Piano.    Eng.  Square  Piano-forte. 


A.D.  I  7 3  5- 1 8 2  7 .]    Ea rly  Pia^io-forte  Music.  287 

Composer  who  devoted  his  attention  to  it,  in  pre- 
ference to  the  Harpsichord ;  and  his  brother,  Johann 
Christian,  [1735 — 3  782],  a  genius  of  less  exalted 
rank,  took  an  equal  interest  in  its  progress,  as  did 
their  contemporary,  Schobert,  [1730 — 1768].  But, 
the  first  really  immortal  compositions  produced  for 
the  new  Instrument  were  those  of  Haydn,  who  loved 
it  dearly,  and  exhibited  no  less  true  genius  in  the 
conduct  of  his  Sonatas,  than  in  that  of  his  Violin 
Quartetts.  The  next  great  Classical  Composer  for 
the  Piano-forte  was  Muzio  Clementi,  [1752—1832], 
whose  Gradus  ad  Parnassum  still  claims  a  very  im- 
portant place  in  the  Pianist's  library.  Then  came 
Mozart.  [1756 — 1791],  whose  Piano-forte  works, 
like  those  of  Beethoven,  [1770 — 1827],  are  treated 
with  a  loving  care  equal  to  that  bestowed  upon  the 
grandest  orchestral  productions  in  existence  :  and 
the  same  mav  well  be  said  of  the  Piano-forte  works 
of  Franz  Schubert,  [1797—1828].  Contemporary, 
or  nearly  so,  with  some  of  these  were,  the  once 
popular  Wanhall,  [1739—1813];  the  English  Com- 
posers, Abraham  Fisher,  [1744 — 1800],  James  Hook, 
[1746—1827],  and  John  Field  [1782—1837];  with 
the  German  virtuosi,  Joseph  Woelfl,  [1772—1812], 
Daniel  Steibelt,  [1764—1823],  and  a  host  of 
others,  in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  whose 
very  names  we  cannot  afford  sujficient  space  to 
mention. 


288    Modern  Piaito-forte  Music,    [a.  d.  i  800- 1875. 

Much  greater  than  these  last  were  John  Baptist 
Cramer,  [1771 — 1858],  and  Johann  Ludwig  Dussek, 
[1761 — 1812]  ;  refined  Artists,  in  the  truest  sense 
of  the  word,  whose  works  still  hold  their  place, 
notwithstanding  the  innumerable  changes  of  style 
which  have  succeeded  them. 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber  [1786 — 1826]  represented 
a  later  School,  of  incomparable  brilliancy,  combined 
with  the  highest  refinement  of  style :  a  School  in 
which  Ignaz  Moscheles,  [1794—1870],  and  Felix 
Mendelssohn  Bartholdy,  [1809 — 1847],  shone  with 
a  lustre  peculiarly  their  own,  each  following  the 
bent  of  their  own  peculiar  genius,  always  making 
the  most  of  their  Instrument,  and  displaying  its 
qualities  to  the  utmost  possible  advantage,  yet  never 
sacrificing  the  claims  of  Art  to  the  demand  for 
brilliant  execution,  though  the  perfection  of  their 
technique  permitted  them  to  set  all  thought  of 
difficulty  at  defiance.  The  most  gifted  representa- 
tive of  this  beautiful  School,  in  England,  was  Sir 
William  Sterndale  Bennett,  [1816—1875],  whose 
compositions  rival  those  of  Weber,  and  Mendelssohn, 
in  beauty,  and  display  a  command  of  technical 
resources  rarely  attained,  even  by  virtuosi  of  the 
highest  rank. 

Far  inferior  to  these  Composers,  in  all  that 
pertains  to  the  higher  walks  of  Art,  were  Johann 
Nepomuk  Hummel,  [1 778-— 1837],  and  Friedrich 


A.D.  1 800-1 885.]  Modern  Piam-forte  Music,  289 


Kalkbrenner,  [1788 — 1849]  ;  and  lower  still  was 
the  patli  chosen  by  Carl  Czerny,  [1791 — 1857],  the 
vapidity  of  whose  compositions  is  however,  nobly 
atoned  for,  by  his  invaluable  Studies.  An  admirable 
executant,  attached  to  this  once  popular  School,  still 
lives,  in  the  person  o£  the  venerable,  and  sincerely 
beloved  Henri  Herz,  [1806 — ],  now  just  entering 
the  eightieth  year  of  his  age. 

In  the  latest  phase  of  the  history  of  Piano-forte 
Music,  three  names  stand  out,  so  far  beyond  all 
others,  that  they  fairly  demand  a  separate  classifi- 
cation of  their  own.  We  need  scarcely  say  that  we 
allude  to  Frederic  Chopin,  [1809—1849],  Franz 
Liszt,  [1811 —  ^  ],  and  Sigismond  Thalberg, 
[1812—1871].  The  path  struck  out  by  Chopin 
was  so  ineffably  original — so  far  removed  from  all 
that  it  had  ever  entered  into  the  heart  of  the  most 
original  thinkers  to  conceive — that  no  later  Com- 
poser ever  attempted  to  follow  it ;  and  it  may  be 
safely  prophesied,  that,  should  any  one,  at  any 
future  time,  be  weak  enough  to  make  the  attempt, 
he  will  bitterly  repent  his  folly.  Liszt's  unapproach- 
able executive  power  has  undoubtedly  exercised  a 
very  remarkable  effect  upon  his  creative  energy. 
The  virtuoso  to  whom  technical  difficulty  is  a  thing 

^  That  this  vacant  space  may  remain  unfilled,  for  many  a  long 
year  to  come,  will  be  the  earnest  prayer  of  every  true  Musician 
who  truly  loves  his  Art. 

IT 


290    Modern  Ptano-fo7^te  Mtisic.   [a.d.  1800- 1885. 

unknown  is  not  likely  to  confine  the  range  of  his 
conceptions  within  the  limits  which  ordinary  thinkers 
feel  themselves  bound  to  respect.  And  hence  it  is 
that  Liszt's  compositions,  and,  especially,  his  later 
ones,  exhibit  an  originality  which  seems,  sometimes, 
to  border  upon  the  extravagant,  or  would,  perhaps, 
do  so,  but  for  the  true  artistic  feeling  which  governs 
even  his  wildest  flights  of  fancy.  Of  Thalberg,  it 
has  been  truly  said,  that  he  was  the  finest  '  Singer ' 
upon  his  Instrument  that  ever  lived.  For,  in  his 
hands,  the  Piano-forte  was  gifted  with  the  sonority, 
and  one  felt  compelled  to  believe,  with  the  sustaining 
power  also,  of  the  loveliest  of  human  voices. 

Among  our  latest  Composers,  Eobert  Schumann, 
[1810 — 1856],  stands  absolutely  alone.  His  earnest 
endeavour  to  express  that  which  he  considered  most 
beautiful  in  Art  invests  his  compositions  with  an 
originality  which  sets  all  imitation  at  defiance.  Of 
the  Piano-forte  works  of  Stephen  Heller,  Camille 
Saint  Saens,  Max  Bruch,  Johannes  Brahms,  and 
other  Composers,  happily  still  living,  this  is  not  the 
proper  place  to  speak ;  nor  can  we,  for  the  same 
reason,  do  more  than  mention  the  names  of  Madame 
Clara  Schumann,  Herr  Hans  von  Bulow,  and  other 
living  virtuosi  of  the  highest  rank. 

It  will  be  readily  understood,  that,  in  this  rapid 
sketch,  we  have,  of  necessity,  omitted  all  mention 
of  names,  many  of  which  are  well  known,  not  only 


A. D.  1 800-1885.]  Modern  Piano-forte  Music.  291 


to  tlie  student,  but  to  the  world  at  large.  The 
limits  of  our  work  render  any  other  course  than 
this  impossible,  in  a  branch  of  history  in  which  the 
names  of  men  who  have  left  their  mark  upon  Art 
may  be  counted  by  decads,  while  those  who  have 
attained  an  honourable  reputation  must  be  reckoned 
by  hundreds.  Those  who  wish  for  more  elaborate 
details  will  do  well  to  consult  the  excellent  Article 
on  PiANO-FOETE  Music,  in  Sir  George  Grove's  '  Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians.' 


Fi&.  43. 
THE  ABBE    PEAXZ  LISZT, 


CHAPTEE  XXVII. 

ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  DRAMATIC  MUSIC,  IN  ITALY,  DUEING 
THE  CLOSING  DECADES  OE  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  as  a 
period  during  which  Modern  Music  made  more 
rapid  progress  towards  perfection,  than  at  any  pre- 
vious stage  of  its  history. 

In  spite  of  adverse  influences,  Italian  Opera 
gradually  moulded  itself  into  a  form  of  exquisite 
grace,  lacking  nothing  but  the  soul  of  dramatic 
propriety  to  endow  it  with  the  life  and  vigour  which 
alone  could  have  ensured  it  a  permanent  place  in 
the  history  of  the  True  and  the  Beautiful  in  Art. 
Without  that  life,  its  continued  existence  was  impos- 
sible. But,  beneath  its  coldness,  and  impassibility, 
there  lurked  a  mighty  power,  destined,  one  day,  to 
delight,  not  only  the  outer  world,  but  even  those 
most  earnestly  in  search  of  pure  artistic  truth — the 
power  of  abstract  loveliness.  The  Operas  of  Por- 
pora,  though  brilHant  beyond  all  precedent,  were 
certainly  not  lovely.    Neither  were  those  of  Hasse ; 


A.D.  1 728-1 83 7.]    Piccini,  Zingarelli, 


293 


though  his  graceful  Melodies  effected  a  perceptible 
bias  in  the  right  direction.  Later  writers  followed 
this  up,  with  avidity.  Baldassare  Galuppi,  [1706 — 
1785],  attached  himself,  with  heart  and  soul,  to  the 
cause  of  progress,  as  his  two  masterpieces,  Siroe,  and 
Didone  abhandonata,  abundantly  prove.  Jomelli, 
and  Paisiello,  wrought  a  still  more  excellent  work ; 
and  the  ill-fated  Pergolesi  surpassed  them  all,  in 
the  grace  and  beauty  of  his  ideas.  Niccola  Piccini, 
[1728 — 1800],  made  a  still  greater  advance.  His 
famous  Opera  Buffa,  La  Gecchina,  ossia  La  buona 
Figliuola,  attained  an  European  reputation,  even 
during  his  life-time;  and  Tj  OUmj^iade  was  equally 
successful,  in  a  graver  style ;  while  his  French  Operas, 
Roland,  SLTidAtys,  made  their  mark,  in  the  very  teeth  of 
his  conflict  with  the  Gluckistes.  Nicolo  Zingarelli, 
[1752 — 1837],  whose  Romeo  e  Giulietta  produced  so 
great  an  effect,  was  unsurpassed  in  purity  of  style, 
and  refinement  of  detail.  All  these  great  writers 
contributed  something  towards  the  perfection  of 
outward  form  with  which  Italian  Opera  was  gradu- 
ally clothing  itself.  But  Gluck  outshone  them  all. 
His  early  love  for  the  Italian  School  was  no  tran- 
sitory passion.  He  was  ravished  with  its  beauty, 
and  made  it  more  beautiful  than  ever;  surpassed 
the  Italians  themselves,  in  grace;  and  invested 
their  national  Art-form  with  a  loveliness  which  far 
exceeded  the  result  of  their  own  attempts  to  bring 


294  Modern  Italian  Opera,   [a.d.  i  750-1800. 

it  to  perfection.    Had  he  never  projected  his  great 
reform,  he  would  still  have  left  his  rival,  Piccini,  in 
the  shade,  and  conquered  him  on  his  own  ground. 
Happily,  his  contempt  for  artistic  falsehood  led  him 
to  adopt  a  very  different  course.    Quitting  the  path 
he  had  so  long  and  so  successfully  followed,  he  left 
the  Italians  to  do  the  best  they  could  for  their 
national  Dramma  jper  la  Musica,  and  devoted  his 
indomitable  energies  to  the  furtherance  of  a  truer 
and  a  nobler  cause.    But,  the  Italians  were  not 
idle.     The  work  began  by  Peri;  carried  on  by 
Scarlatti,  Legrenzi,  Logroscino,  Jomelli,  and  Per- 
golesi ;  farther  developed  by  Sacchini,  and  Salieri ; 
and  ennobled  by  Piccini,  and  the  early  efforts  of 
Gluck,  was  brought  to  perfection   by  Domenico 
Cimarosa,  whose  genius — of  which  we  shall  presently 
speak  in  detail — invested  the  purest  type  of  Italian 
Opera,  properly  so  called,  with  a  charm  that  has 
never  been  surpassed,  and  glorified  its  outward  form 
with  a  symmetrical  grace  which  raises  his  works  more 
nearly  than  those  of  any  other  Composer  to  the  level 
attained  by  Mozart. 


CHAPTER  XXYIII. 


ON  THE  COXDITION  OF  DRAMATIC  MUSIC,  IN  FEANCE, 
DURING  THE  LATER  DECADES  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

The  close  of  the  Eigliteenth  Century  witnessed  as 
rapid  a  progress  in  the  already  highly-advanced 
Dramatic  Music  of  the  French  School,  as  in  that  of 
Italy.  Gluck's  sojourn  in  Paris  had  opened  the 
eyes  of  French  Composers  to  some  valuable  truths ; 
and  communicated  to  them  an  impulse  which  mani- 
fested itself 5  with  equal  energy,  in  two  very  different 
directions,  affecting  the  Oioera  Comiqiie  no  less 
perceptibly  than  the  Grand  Opera  itself. 

The  Grand  Opera — the  French  equivalent  of  the 
Italian  Opera  seria — sprang  into  existence  simulta- 
neously with  the  Academie  Royale  de  Musique,  This 
famous  institution  was  founded,in  1669,  under  Royal 
Letters  Patent,  by  the  Marquis  de  Sourdeac,  the 
Abbe  Perrin,  and  Robert  Cambert,  whose  privileges, 
which  bore  rather  heavily  upon  Artists  in  general, 
were  wrested  from  them,  in  1672,  by  Jean  Baptiste 


296  L  A  caddie  Royale  de  Musique,  [i  8th  Century. 

Lulli,  and  inherited,  half  a  century  later,  by  Jean 
Philippe  Eameau.     The  permanent  home  of  the 
Academie,  in  the  days  of  these  early  monopolists, 
was,  the  Theatre  in  the  Palais  Royal,  originally  built 
by  Lemercier,  whose  stately  edifice  was  destroyed, 
by  fire,  in  1763,  rebuilt  immediately  afterwards,  and 
again  burned  down,  in  1781.    After  this  second 
disaster,  the  Academic  found  a  temporary  refuge  in 
the  Salle  des  Menus -Plaisirs,  whence  it  removed, 
soon  afterwards,  to  the  Salle  de  la  Porte  Saint- 
Martin,  built  for  it  by  Lenoir.    In  1794,  the  Aca- 
demie  removed  to  the  Theatre  in  the  Eue  Richelieu, 
which  afterwards  attained  so  fatal  a  celebrity  through 
the  assassination  of  the  Due  de  Berri,  on  the  13th 
of  February,  1820.    In  consequence  of  this  terrible 
tragedy,  the  house  was  demolished ;  and  the  Aca- 
demie  resumed  its  performances  in  the  Salle  Favart, 
whence  it  removed,  in  1821,  to  the  Theatre  in  the 
Rue  Le  Peletier.    This  also,  was  burned  down,  in 
its  turn ;  and,  on  January  5,  1875,  the  Academie  de 
Musique  took  possession  of  the  magnificent  Theatre 
which  now  bears  its  name,  and  which,  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  it  will  long  continue  to  occupy. 

The  Ojpera  Gomique  originated  with  the  vagrant 
troupes  of  the  Foire  Saint  Germain,  which,  rebelling 
against  the  despotism  of  Lulli,  managed,  from  time 
to  time,  to  evade  the  Law,  and  even  to  obtain  a 
show  of  ordinances  in  their  favour.    The  title  of 


I 8th  Century.]    L'Opdra  Comiqiie.  297 

O^era  Comique  was  first  claimed  in  1715.  In  1762, 
the  Company  established  itself  at  the  Theatre  in 
the  Rue  Mauconseil,  whence,  in  1788,  it  removed 
to  that  in  the  Eue  Favart.  A  second  Company 
took  possession,  in  1791,  of  the  Theatre  in  the 
Eue  Feydeau.  In  1801,  the  two  Companies  united, 
at  the  last-named  house,  whence  they  migrated,  in 
1829,  to  the  Salle  Yentadour,  and,  in  1832,  to  the 
Theatre  des  Xouveautes,  on  the  Place  de  la  Bourse. 
Finally,  in  1840,  they  returned  to  the  Salle  Favart, 
where  they  still  remain,  and  where  some  of  their 
greatest  triumphs  have  been  achieved. 

The  works  performed  at  the  Academie,  and  the 
Opera  Comiqite,  are  essentially  different  in  character. 
It  is  indispensable  that  the  Grand  Opera  should  be 
sung,  throughout,  spoken  dialogue  being  rigorously 
excluded  from  every  part  of  it.  The  purest  examples 
are  divided  into  five  Acts  ;  and  an  incidental  Ballet 
occupies  a  prominent  position  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  Scenes.  In  the  Opera  Comique,  on  the  con- 
trary, spoken  Dialogue  is  treated  as  an  essential 
element  of  the  design,  and  is  introduced  no  less 
freely  than  in  the  German  Sing  spiel,  between  the 
various  Airs  and  Concerted  Pieces.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  conventional  name  applied  to  works  of  this 
class,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  plot  of 
the  Drama  should  be  really  a  comic  one ;  nor  even 
that  the  story  should  end  happily.    In  Les  deux 


298 


Gretry,         [a.d.  i  741-18 13. 


Journees^  tlie  spectator  is  constantly  kept  in  a  state 
of  agonizing  suspense  ;  while  Mehul's  Joseph^  founded 
on  the  Scripture  Narrative,  presents  all  the  essential 
characteristics  of  a  true  Opera  Comique,  and  is 
always  considered  to  be  one.  In  truth,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  spoken  Dialogue  marks  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  classes  far  more  clearly 
than  either  the  character  of  the  story,  or  the  style 
of  the  Music. 

Most  French  Composers  of  the  highest  rank  have 
produced  works  of  both  classes. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  illustrious  of  Rameau's 
successors  was  Andre  Ernest  Modesto  Gretry, 
[1741 — 1813],  whose  prolific  pen  enriched  the 
French  School  with  more  than  fifty  Operas, 
of  which  nearly  twenty  were  written  for  the 
Academie,  though  the  Composer  undoubtedly 
achieved  his  greatest  successes  at  the  Opera  Comique. 
First  amongst  these  stand  Le  Tableau  parlant, 
[1769];  Zemire  et  Azor,  [1771];  L^Amant  jaloux, 
[1778] ;  and,  more  charming  than  all  the  rest, 
Richard  Goaur  de  Lion,  [1784],  which  still  keeps  its 
place  on  the  Stage,  and  has  been  invested  with  a 
sad  historical  interest  since  the  performance  of  the 
beautiful  Air,  0  Richard,  6  mon  Roi,  Vunivers 
f^ahandonne,  at  Versailles,  on  October  1,  1789. 

Jean  Fran9ois  Lesueur,  [1763 — 1837],  though  a 
voluminous  writer  of  Sacred  Music,  produced  also  a 


A.D.  1 793-1 8 1 7.]  MehuL 


299 


number  of  very  successful  Operas,  tlie  best  of  which 
were,  La  Gaverne,  [1793]  ;  Paul  et  Virginie,  [1794]  ; 
Telemaquef  [lids'];  and  Ossian,  [1804]. 

Another  successful  Composer  was  Henri  Montan 
Berton,  [1767 — 1842],  whose  first  Opera,  La  Dame 
invisible,  [1787],  was  followed  by  a  long  succession 
of  others,  among  the  best  of  which  were  Ponce  de 
Leon,  [1794],  and  Montano  et  Stephanie,  [1799]. 

Greater  than  all  these,  and  ranking  far  above  all 
other  French  Composers  of  the  period,  were  Mehul, 
and  Boieldieu — two  of  the  brightest  geniuses  that 
this  School  has  ever  produced. 

Etienne  Henri  Mehul,  [1763 — 1817],  was  equally 
remarkable  for  his  inexhaustible  vein  of  Melody, 
and  for  the  beauty  and  dramatic  power  of 
his  ever-varied  Instrumentation.  In  Phrosine 
et  Melidore,  [1794],  he  produces  extraordinary 
effects  by  means  of  stopped  notes  played  on 
four  Horns,  in  four  different  Keys,  the  muffled 
tones  of  which  are  used  with  intense  dramatic 
power.  In  Euphrosyne  et  Coradin,  [1790],  he 
produces  the  opposite  effect,  by  directing  that 
the  bells  of  the  Horns  are  to  be  raised — Pavilions 
en  Vair ;  and  his  use  of  the  same  Instruments 
in  the  masterly  Overture  to  Le  jeune  Henri,  [1797], 
is  above  all  praise.  Throughout  the  whole  of 
another  Opera — JJthal,  [1806] — he  replaced  the 
Violin  parts  with  Viole — it  is  said,  at  the  suggestion 


300 


MShuL        [a.d.  1 763-18 1 7. 


of  Napoleon  Buonaparte — producing  thereby  an 
exquisite  effect  of  vaguest  melancholy.^  But,  his 
greatest  work  is  undoubtedly  Josejph^  produced  in 
1807,  at  which  period  his  fame  had  reached  its 
zenith. 


Fig.  44. 
iTIENNE  HENEI  MEHUL. 

The  genius  of  Francois  Adrien  Boieldieu,  [1775 
— 1834],  was  of  a  lighter,  but  certainly  not  of  a 
lower  order  than  that  of  Mehul.  His  first  Opera 
of  any  importance — La  Famille  Suisse — was  played, 
at  the  Theatre  Feydeau,  in  1797,  for  thirty  nights, 
alternately  with  Cherubini's  Medee.     One  of  his 

1  It  is  very  rarely  indeed  that  any  portion  of  this  beautiful 
Opera  is  now  performed  in  public.  The  writer  was  fortunate 
enough  to  hear  a  large  selection  from  it,  played,  and  sung,  under 
the  direction  of  Mendelssohn,  in  1846. 


A.D.  1775-1834.]       Boieldieii,  301 

best  works — Le  Calif e  de  Bagdad — achieved  a  still 
greater  success,  in  1800 ;  yet,  so  dissatisfied  -was 
lie  with  it,  that  he  produced  nothing  more,  for 
three  years.  The  studies  in  which  he  engaged, 
during  this  long  period,  proved  invaluable  to  him. 
In  1803,  he  was  appointed  Conductor  of  the  Im- 
perial Opera,  at  S.  Petersburg,  and  produced  many 
fine  works  for  that  institution.  But  his  two  great 
masterpieces,  Jean  de  Paris,  and  La  Dame  BJancJie, 
were  composed  after  his  return,  in  1811,  to  Pai*is — 
the  first,  in  1812,  and  the  second,  after  another 
long  period  of  dissatisfaction  and  study,  in  1825. 
The  beauty  of  these  two  charming  works  he  never 
succeeded  in  surpassing :  but  they  alone  assure 
him  the  highest  place  among  the  Masters  of  the 
Opera  Gomique. 

These  Great  Masters  raised  French  Dramatic 
Music  to  a  very  high  level  indeed,  and  ennobled  it 
with  a  purity  of  style  which  has  not  been  suflficiently 
reverenced  by  their  followers.  Jean  Jacques  Hous- 
seau,  [1712 — 1778],  whose  Devin  du  Village  pro- 
duced so  great  a  sensation  at  Court,  in  1752,  and, 
in  the  following  year,  at  the  Academie^  affected 
to  despise  French  Music,  and  wrote  very  bitterly 
against  it.  Yet,  Le  Levin  du  Village  is  a  true 
French  Opera  :  and  a  true  French  Opera,  even  of 
that  early  period,  is  a  very  beautiful  thing.  Boiel- 
dieu,  and  Mehul,  made  it  very  beautiful  indeed : 


302 


y ,  J ,  Rousseau,    [a.d.  1712-1778. 


and  much  good  work  was  done,  in  the  right  direc- 
tion, by  Pierre  Alexandre  Monsigny,  [1729 — 1817] 
Nicolas  Dalayrac,  [1753 — 1809],  Charles  Simon 
Catel,  [1773—1830],  Nicolo  Isouard,  [1775--1818], 
and  many  another  earnest  labourer  in  the  good 
cause.  But,  the  brilliant  efifusions  of  Herold 
and  Auber,  have  caused  too  many  of  the  great  works 
of  the  best  period  to  be  forgotten :  and  even  the 
matchless  productions  of  Cherubini  (of  whom  we 
shall  speak  in  another  place)  and  the  masterpieces 
of  Spontini  and  Halevy,  have  failed  to  attain  the 
amazing  popularity  of  Zampa^  Le  Pre  aux  Clercs, 
Fra  Diavolo,  or,  La  Muette  de  Portici.  But,  these 
later  works  are  children  of  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
and  claim  no  notice  in  our  present  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


CONCERNING  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  LEIPZIG,  AND  VIENNA. 

In  the  higher  phases  of  German  Art,  the  stream  of 
progress  has  flowed,  during  the  past  hundred  years, 
in  two  distinct  channels,  not  actually  opposed  to 
each  other,  yet  certainly  not  lying  side  by  side. 

The  original  centre  of  North  German  Art  was 
Leipzig :  its  great  nursery  in  the  South  of  Germany 
was  Vienna. 

Johann  Sebastian  Bach  came  into  residence  in 
Leipzig,  as  Cantor  of  the  Thomas-Schule,  in  1723; 
and  spent  the  best  years  of  his  artistic  life  in  raising 
the  Sacred  Music  of  Protestant  Germany  to  a 
level  which  no  later  Composer  has  succeeded  in 
reaching. 

With  the  Church  Music  perfected  by  Palestrina, 
during  the  second  half  of  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
this  form  of  Art  had  nothing  in  common.  Its  pillar  of 
strength  was, the  Lutheran  Choral — its  most  eloquent 
exponents,  the  Organ,  and  the  mixed  congregation. 
For  the  Polyphonia  of  Italian  Choral  Music,  it  sub- 


304  Johann  Adam  Hiller,  [a.d.  i  728-1804. 

stituted  the  Poljodia  of  the  more  modern  Schools '} 
for  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  the  Major  and  Minor 
Scales.^  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  finest  Chorale 
are  written  in  the  older  Modes  ;  and  Sebastian  Bach 
always  treated  such  Melodies  in  their  own  special 
tonalities.  But  his  natural  bias  was  towards  the 
modern  Scale ;  and  he  always  employed  it,  when 
untrammeled  by  a  given  Subject.  Of  the  style  of 
his  Part- writing  we  have  akeady  spoken.  It  was 
exactly  that  most  needed  for  the  work  he  had  in 
hand ;  and,  by  its  aid,  he  produced,  for  the 
Thomas- Kirche,  and  the  Nicolai-Kirche,  a  series  of 
Passion-Oratorios,  and  '  Church-Cantatas,'  which 
alone  would  have  sufficed  to  render  his  name 
immortal. 

For  the  Stage,  Sebastian  Bach  had  certainly  no 
vocation :  but,  not  many  years  after  his  death,  it 
was  nobly  represented,  in  the  town  of  his  adoption, 
by  a  later  Cantor  of  the  Thomas- Schule,  Johann 
Adam  Hiller,  [1728-1804],  who  first  settled  in 
Leipzig  in  1758.  Hiller  was  a  thorough  Musician, 
well  skilled  in  all  branches  of  his  Art.  He  began 
his  work  by  conducting  the  Oratorios  of  Handel  and 
Graun  for  the  '  Concert-Institut.'  The  old  '  Grosses 
Concert '  having  failed,  he  substituted  for  it  a  series 
of  *  Concerts  spirituels,'  which  flourished  exceed- 

^  See  chapter  xviii. 

2  See  page  11,  note;  and  p.  17. 


A.D.  1 760-1 780.]    The Singspieir 


305 


inglj:  and,  in  1781,  he  secured  for  the  'Institut' 
the  newly-built  hall  of  the  '  Gewandhaus,'  thus  origi- 
nating the  still  famous  performances  known  to  all 
Europe  as  the  '  Gewandhaus  Concerts,'  of  which  he 
had  the  honour  of  being  the  first  Director,  a  circum- 
stance which  led  to  his  nomination,  in  1786,  as 
Cantor  of  the  Thomas- Schule.  But  this  was  not  all. 
There  was,  at  this  time,  an  excellent  Theatre  in 
Leipzig ;  and,  for  this,  he  wrote  a  number  of  Musical 
Dramas,  founded  on  a  plan  of  his  own,  and  well- 
calculated  to  win  the  hearts  of  the  German  peoj)le, 
through  the  medium  of  the  national  ^Lied^  the  form 
of  which  he  followed  very  closely.  Of  these,  he 
wrote  fourteen,  the  most  successful  of  which  were. 
Die  Jagd^  Ber  Dorfbarhier,  and  Der  Teufel  ist  los. 
In  these  charming  little  pieces,  he  originated  the 
national  Art-form  now  known  as  the  Singsjyiel;  the 
German  analogue  of  the  French  Opera  Comique  :  a 
species  of  Drama,  in  which  spoken  Dialogue  was,  at 
first,  interspersed  with  Songs  only,  but  into  which 
he  afterwards  introduced  Duets,  Trios,  and  other 
'  Concerted  Pieces,'  with  the  happiest  possible  efi'ect. 
Of  this  delightful  form  of  Opera — the  most  truly 
national  form  that  has  ever  been  cultivated  in 
Germany — Leipzig  was  undoubtedly  the  cradle,  and 
Hiller  the  undisputed  inventor. 

It  is  true  that  Operas  had,  for  many  years,  been 
regularly  performed   at  Hamburg,  where  Johann 

X 


3o6  Reinhard  Keiser,  [a.d.  1673- 1739. 

Theile  produced  his  Adam  und  Eva — the  first  Drama 
ever  sung  throughout  in  the  Grerman  language — in 
1678 ;  and  where,  under  the  energetic  direction  of 
Reinhard  Keiser,  [1673 — 1739],  the  Lyric  Drama 
took  permanent  root,  and  flourished  splendidly  for 
half  a  century  at  least.  For  the  once  famous  Theatre 
in  the  Goose  Market — the  scene  of  Handel's  duel 
with  Mattheson — Keiser  wrote  certainly  not  less 
than  a  hundred  and  sixteen  Operas,  and  probably 
many  more.  Nicolaus  Strunck,  [1640 — 1700], 
wrote  six ;  Johann  Franck,  [circa  1680],  thirteen ; 
Johann  Fortsch,  [1652 — 1708],  twelve ;  Johann 
Conradi,  [circa  1695],  eight;  Johann  Oousser, 
[1657—1727],  three;  Johann  Mattheson,  Handel's 
soi-disant  friend  and  admirer,  [1681 — 1764],  three; 
and  Handel  himself,  four.  But  these  Operas  were 
of  a  very  different  kind.  Many  of  them  were 
written  in  Italian ;  many  more,  in  a  barbarous  and 
utterly  indefensible  mixture  of  Italian  and  German  : 
but  none  of  them  bore  the  slightest  resemblance  to 
the  then  uninvented  Singsjpiel,  the  whole  merit  of 
which  rests  with  Hiller.  Whatever  fault  we  may 
find  with  the  anomaly  upon  which  this  is  founded — 
and  it  is  not  easy  to  defend  it — we  must  admit  that 
it  has  led  to  the  most  superb  results.  The  mixture  of 
spoken  Dialogue  with  Airs  accompanied  by  the  full 
Orchestra — unless  the  Airs  be  entirely  of  an  in- 
cidental character — is  contrary  to  all  sense  of  the 


I  8th  Century.]  Operas  with  Spoken  Dialogue.  307 

fitness  of  things,  to  all  aesthetic  propriety,  to  every 
canon  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  true  and 
reasonable  Art.    A  Drama  may  be  spoken,  or  it 
may  be  snng.    We  may  so  far  forget  ourselves, 
when  listening  to  it,  as  to  believe  that  the  natural 
language  of  those  who  enact  it  is  the  language  of 
Music.    But,  it  cannot  be  the  language  of  Music,  in 
one  half  of  a  Scene,  and  that  of  common  life  in  the 
other.    We  may  agree  to  accept  a  conventional 
paradox,  in  place  of  absolute  truth,  without  detri- 
ment to  Art,  provided  it  be  fairly  maintained :  but 
we  cannot  alternately  accept  and  reject  it  at  a 
moment's  notice.    We  must  have,  either  the  one 
thing,  or  the  other.    No  attempt  at  compromise  in 
this  matter  can  lead  to  anything  short  of  a  mon- 
strous absurdity.    The  Singspiel,  and  the  Opera 
Comique,  and  the  old  '  English  Opera,'  are  mon- 
strosities, in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word.  The 
only  reasonable  Musical  Drama  is  that  which  is  sung 
throughout.   Peri  knew  this ;  and  Monteverde  knew 
it.     Handel  and  Gluck  knew  it.     And  Eichard 
Wagner  knew  it.    But,  we  may  love,  and  admire, 
and  even  reverence,  a  thing  that  we  cannot  reason- 
ably defend.    And  it  is  impossible  to  help  loving, 
and  admiring,  and  reverencing  the  Singspiel ;  for, 
without  this,  we  could  never  have  had  Die  Ent- 
filhrung  aus  dem  Semil,  or  Die  Zauherflote,  or  Fidelio, 
ov  Der  Freischutz ;  just  as,  in  France,  Ave  could  have 

X  2 


3o8  Albrechtsberger,    [a.d.  1736-1809. 

liad  no  Medee^  or  Les  deux  Journees,  without  the 
Opera  Comique,  Condemn  all  these,  too,  as  mon- 
strosities, if  you  will.  But,  Oh  !  how  beautiful  they 
are  !  Is  there  anyone  living,  who  would  exchange 
the  anomaly  they  glorify  for  the  conscientious 
deification  of  any  form  of  artistic  truth  whatever  ? 

Very  different  from  the  School  of  Leipzig  was 
that  of  Vienna — the  '  Classical  School '  jpar  excel- 
lence, Haydn's  title  to  rank  as  the  Founder  of  this 
has  never  been  doubted.  But,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  he  found  the  ground  well  prepared  for  the  mag- 
nificent edifice  he  designed  to  build  upon  it.  When 
Fux  printed  his  '  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  at  Vienna,  in 
1725,  he  led  the  way  to  one  of  the  grandest  develop- 
ments of  Art  that  modern  times  have  witnessed ; 
for,  it  was  upon  the  precepts  laid  down  in  that 
invaluable  treatise  that  Haydn  formed  his  own  style, 
and  taught  Mozart  and  Beethoven  how  to  form  theirs. 
Johann  Georg  Albrechtsberger,  [1736 — 1809],  nobly 
supplemented  this  with  his  '  Grundliche  Amveisung 
zur  Composition,  first  published,  at  Leipzig,  in  1790, 
though  written,  like  the  Gradus,  at  Vienna.  These 
two  well-known  theoretical  works  secured  the 
technical  perfection  of  the  School :  but  its  true  glory 
is  written  in  the  Art-lives  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  and  the  martyred  genius,  Schubert.  The 
bond  established  between  these  four  Composers,  by 
the  laws  of  Form  and  Development  which  are  now 


I  8th  Century.]  The  Classical  School.  309 

regarded  as  tile  inalienable  traditions  of  the  School, 
is  closer  than  that  existing  between  any  other  four 
Composers  in  the  world.  And  many  a  later  Com- 
poser has  become  great,  or  insignificant,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  attention  he  has  paid  to  the  principles  by 
which  they  were  governed.  For  the'principles  trans- 
mitted to  posterity  by  the  Viennese  Masters  have 
influenced  every  later  School  in  Europe ;  and  exer- 
cised an  irresistible  effect  upon  the  Music  of  all 
countries.  While  reverencing  Leipzig  as  the  un- 
doubted nursery  of  the  art  of  modern  Part- writing, 
it  is  in  Vienna  that  we  must  seek  for  the  apotheosis 
of  Form.  And  thus  it  comes  to  pass  that  so  many 
of  the  best  Composers  of  the  present  century  have 
shown  themselves  equally  attached  to  the  principles 
of  both  Schools.  Mendelssohn,  for  instance,  was  a 
true  '  Leipziger,'  in  all  that  concerned  his  system  of 
Part-writing,  and  has  long  been  regarded  as  the 
typical  disciple  of  the  North  German  School,  and  the 
trusted  depository  of  its  traditions ;  but,  in  his 
attachment  to  Form,  he  was  an  equally  true 
'  Wiener.'  Weber,  though  he  worked  but  little  in 
Vienna,  was,  at  heart,  a  thorough  Viennese. 
Wagner's  attitude  towards  the  two  great  Schools 
has  been  grievously  misunderstood,  and  cruelly  mis- 
represented: but,  this  part  of  our  subject  involves 
considerations,  too  deep  for  discussion  in  general 
terms,  and  must  therefore  be  laid  before  the  reader 


The  Classical  School,  [i8th  Century. 


in  a  special  chapter  of  its  own.  Suffice  it,  for  the 
present,  to  say  that  no  prejudice  is  more  dangerous, 
or  more  miserably  false,  than  that  which  represents 
the  great  apostles  of  artistic  progress — men  of  tran- 
scendent genius,  and  marked  originality  of  thought, 
such  as  Wagner,  or  Schumann,  or  Berlioz — as  rebels 
against  the  laws  which  have  only  been  laid  down 
for  our  guidance  by  Art,  because  they  were  dictated 
to  Art  by  Nature  herself.  The  real  rebels  are,  not 
the  men  of  genius,  whose  inexhaustible  imagination 
is  too  frequently  mistaken  for  contempt  of  law ;  but, 
the  ill-judged  partisans,  who,  under  cover  of  ex- 
cessive admiration,  overwhelm  them  with  unjust  and 
baseless  accusations* 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


THE  GE^nEEAL  COXDITIOX  OF  MUSIC,  IN  ENGLAND,  DUKING 
THE  CLOSING  YEAES  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTUEY. 

Neithee  among  the  contemporaries  nor  the  suc- 
cessors of  Handel  was  there  one  capable  of  carrying 
on  his  gigantic  work,  even  to  the  extent  of  prevent- 
ing the  English  School  from  sinking  below  the  high 
level  to  which  he  had  so  nobly  elevated  it.  Yet, 
earnest  men  were  not  wanting,  either  in  connection 
with  the  Church,  or  the  Theatre ;  and  many  of  them 
did  good  and  lasting  service. 

The  highest  place  among  them  was  taken  by 
Thomas  Augustine  Arne,  [1710 — 1778],  a  man  of 
high  attainments,  who  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
took  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Music,  at  Oxford,  in 
1759.  His  early  dramatic  works  belonged  to  the  class 
which  was  dignified,  a  hundred  years  ago,  with  the 
generic  name  of  '  Enghsh  Opera.'  In  this  style,  Arne 
set  Addison's  Eosamond  to  Music,  for  the  Theatre 
in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  1733  ;  his  sister — afterwards 
Mrs.   Cibber — performing  the  part  of  Rosamond, 


312 


Rule  Britannia.  [a.d.  i  740. 


and  bis  little  brother,  wHo  liad  at  that  time  an  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  Treble  voice,  that  of  the  Page. 
This  was  so  successful,  that,  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year,  he  set  to  Music,  'after  the  Italian  manner,' 
an  adaptation  of  Fielding's  Tragedy  of  Tragedies, 
which,  under  the  title  of  the  Opera  of  Operas, 
was  produced  at  the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Hay- 
market,^  Master  Arne  taking  the  part  of  the  hero, 
Tom  Thumb.    This  was  followed,  in  1734,  by  Dido 
and  Mneas  ;  and,  in  1738,  by  an  adaptation  of  Mil- 
ton's Gomus,  which  achieved  a  well-merited  triumph, 
at  Drury  Lane.    In  1740,  Ame  wrote  the  Music 
for  Thomson  and  Mallet's  Masque,  Alfred,  which 
was  privately  performed  at  Cliefden  House,  near 
Maidenhead,  the  then  residence  of  Frederick  Prince 
of  Wales.    The  Finale  to  this — now  known  to  all 
the   world  as   our  famous  National  Song,  Biile 
Britannia — brought  the  Composer's  reputation  to 
its  climax.    It  first  appeared  in  print,  at  the  end  01 
Congreve's  Masque,  The  Judgment  of  Paris,  Arne's 
Music  to  which  was  also  sung,  in  1740,  both  at 
Cliefden,  and  at  Drury  Lane,  and  published,  for  the 
first  time,  in  the  same  year.    After  the  two  first 
representations,  at  Cliefden,  Alfred  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  again  performed  until  1745,  when  it 

^  The  then  lessee  of  the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket  was 
Dr.  Arne's  father,  who  so  meanly  pirated  Handel's  Acis  and  Galatea, 
in  1732.    (See  pp.  233,  234.) 


A.D.  1762.]  Artaxerxes.  313 

was  revived,  at  Drury  Lane,  for  Mrs.  Arne's  bene- 
fit :  but  Rule  Britannia  made  its  mark,  at  once,  and 
was  accepted,  as  a  '  National  Ode,'  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 

Some  of  the  Songs  written  by  Arne  for  As  you 
like  it,  in  1740,  and  for  The  Tempest,  in  1746,  are  as 
popular  now,  as  at  the  time  they  were  composed : 
but  his  real  chef  d'oeuvre  was  not  produced  nntil 
1762.  In  the  old  acceptation  of  the  term,  '  English 
Opera  '  was  almost  as  great  an  anomaly  as  the  Ger- 
man Singsjyi el,  and  the  French  Ojjera  Goinique,  of  the 
19th  century.  We  say  'almost,'  because  'English 
Opera'  had  at  least  the  merit  of  introducing 
scarcely  anything  more  than  a  selection  of  'in- 
cidental' songs.  The  introduction  of  a  Song  in 
which  no  attempt  is  made  to  carry  on  the  action  of 
the  Drama  is  contrary  neither  to  dramatic  truth, 
nor  to  esthetic  propriety.  It  is  no  more  unnatural 
to  sing  a  Song  of  this  kind  on  the  Stage,  than  to 
sing  it,  in  real  life,  at  a  social  party.  And  nearly  all 
the  Songs  sung  in  the  old  English  Operas  partook 
more  or  less  extensively  of  this  character.  The  in- 
troduction of  an  ensemble,  of  even  the  smallest  pre- 
tension, was  very  far  from  common.  But,  a  Drama 
with  Songs  in  it,  be  those  Songs  ever  so  numerous, 
cannot  be  consistently  called  an  Opera.  Dr.  Arne 
felt  this;  and,  in  1762,  produced  a  real  English 
Opera,  Artaxerxes,  the  libretto  of  which  he  himself 


314 


Dr,  Peptisch.     [a.d.  1667-1752. 


translated  from  Metastasio's  Artaserse.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  was  very  encouraging ;  and  some  of  tlie 
Music — ex,  gr.  The  Soldier,  tired  of  War^s  alarms, 
and  Water,  parted  from  the  sea — attained  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  popularity :  but,  as  in  tlie  case 
of  Purcell's  Dido  and  JEneas,  the  experiment  was 
not  repeated — possibly,  in  consequence  of  a  foolish 
prejudice,  not  quite  extinct  at  the  present  day,  against 
the  fitness  of  the  English  language  for  Recitative. 
Accordingly,  Dr,  Arne  wrote  his  next  true  Opera  in 
Italian,  to  Metastasio's  Olimpiade ;  and  produced  it 
at  the  King's  Theatre,  where  a  miserable  cabal 
extinguished  it,  after  the  second  representation. 

Dr.  Arne  composed  two  Oratorios ;  Abel,  pro- 
duced in  1755,  and  rendered  famous  by  the  B.ymn 
of  Eve,  which  attained  immense  popularity ;  and 
Judith,  sung,  at  the  Lock  Hospital,  in  1764,  and  re- 
peated, in  1773,  at  Covent  Garden,  on  which  occa- 
sion female  voices  were  employed,  in  the  Chorus,  for 
the  first  time.  He  also  wrote  a  vast  quantity  of 
Songs,  Odes,  and  other  similar  pieces,  for  Vaux» 
hall,  Eanelagh,  and  Marylebone  Gardens ;  and  died, 
universally  beloved,  in  1778. 

One  of  the  greatest  successes  of  the  century  was 
attained  by  The  Beggar^ s  Ojpe^^a,  written  by  John 
Gay ;  adapted,  by  Dr.  John  Christopher  Pepusch, 
[1667 — 1752],  to  a  well-arranged  collection  of 
National  Melodies;  and  performed,  in  1727,  at  the 


A. D.  1 72 7-1 7^90  The  Beggar  s  Opera.    Polly.  315 

Theatre  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  The  plot  of  the 
drama  was  exceedingly  objectionable,  the  hero  of  the 
story  being  a  highwayman,  and  the  scene,  a  cell  in 
Newgate ;  but  the  Music  was  dehghtful.  So  well 
did  the  piece  succeed,  that  Gay  wrote  a  sequel  to  it, 
under  the  title  of  Polly.  To  this,  also.  Dr.  Pepusch 
— who,  though  a  native  of  Berhn,  was  permanently 
settled  in  London — adapted  Music  of  a  similar 
character ;  but,  the  plot  was  so  unfit  for  represen- 
tation that  the  Lord  Chamberlain  prohibited  the 
performance.  The  Music  was,  however,  printed, 
together  with  the  words,  in  1729;  and  the  piece 
was  produced,  at  the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Hay- 
market,  in  1777,  and  1782,  and  at  Drury  Lane,  in 
1813.  Dr.  Pepusch,  who  was  a  highly  accom- 
plished Musician,  wrote,  and  adapted,  many  other 
Operas ;  and  published  some  very  valuable  theo- 
retical works ;  notably,  a  Treatise  on  Harmony, 
printed  in  1730,  and  1731. 

In  The  Beggar^s  Opera,  Polly,  The  Wedding,  and 
some  other  similar  pieces,  Dr.  Pepusch  adhered  to 
the  form  which  has,  not  unaptly,  been  called  the 
'  Ballad  Opera  a  style  of  piece  bearing  a  very 
close  analogy  to  the  French  Vaudeville  ;  and,  for  the 
reasons  we  brought  forward  when  noticing  Dr.  Arne's 
early  works,  much  less  open  to  censure  than  the  more 
pretentious  Dramas  in  which  the  Music  is  not  of  so 
purely  incidental  a  character.    This  form  of  Opera 


3i6 


Dihdin.        [a.d.  i  745-1814. 


was  brought  to  very  great  perfection,  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century ;  and  great  care  was 
bestowed  upon  its  development,  by  Masters  of  real 
talent,  and  even  genius,  to  some  of  whom  it  is 
now  time  that  we  should  call  the  reader's  atten- 
tion. 

Charles  Dibdin,  [1745 — 1814],  composed  nearly  a 
hundred  Operas,  Pastorals,  and  other  'Entertain- 
ments,' for  by  far  the  greater  number  of  which  he 
himself  wrote  the  libretti,  and  in  many  of  which  he 
sang  the  principal  parts,  with  marked  success. 
His  most  popular  Dramas  were.  The  PadlocJc,  pro- 
duced, at  Covent  Garden,  in  1768  ;  The  Waterman, 
[1774]  ;  and  The  Quaker,  [1775].  The  Music  of  these 
is  simply  charming ;  and  the  songs  in  many  of  his 
other  Operas  still  live,  and  never  fail  to  produce 
their  effect.  Eor,  his  vein  of  Melody  was  inex- 
haustible ;  and  his  taste  so  pure,  that,  even  in  his 
most  rollicking  Sea- Songs,  he  never  even  bordered 
upon  vulgarity.  For  these  Sea- Songs  he  nourished 
a  veritable  passion  ;  and  many  of  them  will  live  as 
long  as  England  possesses  a  Navy.  The  best  of  them, 
such  as  Tom  Bowling,  Ned  that  died  at  sea,  Post- 
meridian, ^Twas  in  the  good  ship  '  Hover, ^  Jack 
Batlin,  Ben  Backstay,-  The  Nancy,  Saturday  night  at 
sea.  Poor  Jack,  and  others  too  numerous  to  mention, 
have  all  the  character  of  National  Melodies ;  and, 
among  his  other  Songs,  The  lads  of  the  village, 


A.D.  1 748-1829.]  Shield.  317 

The  Lam]3ligliter,  and  The  high-mettled  Racer,  are 
equally  captivating,  and  scarcely  less  popular.  Many 
of  his  songs  were  sung  at  certain  solo  performances 
wliich  lie  called  '  Table  Entertainments,'  of  wliicli 
he  himself  was  the  Originator,  the  Author,  the 
Narrator,  the  Singer,  and  the  Accompanyist.  In 
recognition  of  the  affection  with  which  his  songs 
were  regarded,  in  the  British  iSTavy,  the  Government 
granted  him,  in  the  year  1802,  a  pension  of  200/. 
per  annum ;  but  the  grant  was  revoked,  at  the  next 
change  of  Ministry.  He  died  of  paralysis,  on  July 
25,  1814. 

A  worthy  contemporary  of  Dibdin  was  William 
Shield,  [1748—1829],  whose  flow  of  Melody  was  as 
pure,  and  as  exhaustless,  as  his  own.  He  composed 
nearly  forty  Operas,  of  which  the  best  were,  Tlie 
Flitch  of  Bacon,  [1778]  ;  The  Enchanted  Castle, 
[1786] ;  Aladdin,  [1788]  ;  The  Mijsteries  of  the  Castle, 
[1795]  ;  The  Castle  of  Andalusia,  and  The  Loch  and 
Key,  [1796].  His  Sea-Songs,  The  Arethusa,  The 
Post-Captain,  and  The  Heaving  of  the  Lead,  are 
equal  to  Dibdin's  ;  andThe  Thorn,  The  Wolf,  and  some 
other  Songs  from  his  Operas,  are  still  deservedly 
popular. 

Of  a  similar  character,  though,  unhappily,  less 
numerous,  in  consequence  of  his  early  death,  were 
the  works  of  Stephen  Storace^  [1763 — 1796],  whose 
Operas,  The  Haunted  Toiver,  [1789],  No  Song,  no 


3i8  Storace.   Hook,    [a.d.  i 746-1827. 

Siqjper,  [1790],  and  The  Iron  Chest,  [1796],  achieved 
extraordinary  success.  He  died,  from  a  cold,  caught 
at  the  first  rehearsal  of  The  Iron  Chest,  on  March  19, 
1796. 

"William  Reeve,  [1757 — 1815],  was  successful  in 
twenty  Operas,  at  least,  of  which  the  best  was.  The 
Bound  Toiver,  [1797].  He  was  the  Composer  of 
Grimaldi's  celebrated  Song,  Tipityiuichet,  which 
formed  part  of  a  Pantomime,  written  for  Sadlers' 
Wells. 

James  Hook,  [1746 — 1827],  composed  a  great 
number  of  English  Operas,  including,  Gufid's  Re- 
venge, [1772]  ;  The  Ladij  of  the  Manor,  [1778]  ;  and 
TeJceli,  [1806].  The  catalogue  of  his  Songs,  Glees, 
Cantatas,  and  other  detached  pieces,  composed  for 
Vauxhall,  Ranelagh,  and  Marylehone  Gardens,  is 
almost  interminable  ;  and  many  of  them  are  excellent. 
James  Hook  was  the  father  of  the  Very  Eev.  James 
Hook,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Worcester,  and  of  Theodore 
Hook,  the  Novehst.  The  Very  Eev.  Walter  Far- 
quhar  Hook,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Chichester,  was  his 
grandson. 

Another  once-popular  Composer  of  English  Operas 
was  John  Davy,  [1765 — 1824],  best  known,  at  the 
present  day,  by  his  popular  Song,  The  Bay  of  Biscay, 
His  best  Operas  were.  The  Miller^ s  Maid,  1804  ;  and 
The  Blind  Boy,  [1808]. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  this  account,  that  our  native 


A.D.  1677-1755.]  Dr.  Cj'oft.   Dr.  Greene.  319 

Composers  were  doing  their  best  to  establish  a  School 
of  Dramatic  Music,  which,  if  it  did  not  aim  high, 
was,  at  least,  of  pure  intent,  and  susceptible  of  very 
beautiful  treatment.  At  the  same  time,  our  Composers 
of  Sacred  Music  were  far  from  idle.  We  have 
mentioned  some  of  them,  in  an  earlier  chapter,  in 
connection  with  the  School  of  the  Eestoration.  The 
traditions  of  that  brilHant,  but  short-lived  School, 
were  worthily  carried  on  by  one  of  the  best  of  our 
Cathedral  writers,  Dr.  William  Croft,  [1677—1727], 
a  quondam  Chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  under  Dr. 
Blow.  In  1704,  Dr.  Croft  was  appointed  joint 
Organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  with  Jeremiah  Clark, 
on  whose  death,  in  1707,  he  became  sole  Organist. 
On  the  death  of  Dr.  Blow,  in  1708,  he  was  appointed 
Composer,  and  Master  of  Choristers  at  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  Organist  of  Westminster  Abbey ;  and 
it  was  in  discharge  of  the  duties  attendant  upon 
these  honourable  preferments  that  he  composed  most 
of  his  fine  Services,  and  Anthems.  His  best  pub- 
lished work,  entitled.  Thirty  Anthems^  and  a  Burial 
Service,  was  printed  in  1724. 

Another  excellent  Church  Composer  of  this  period 
was  Dr.  Maurice  Greene,  [1696 — 1755],  whose 
Anthems  and  Services  are  still  highly  prized  by  our 
Cathedral  Choirs.  He  was  appointed  Organist  of 
S.  Paul's,  in  1718 ;  Organist  and  Composer  to  the 
Chapel  Royal,  (on  the  death  of  Dr.  Croft),  in  1727  ; 


320 


Dr.  Boyce.  [a.d.  1710-1779. 


and  Professor  of  Music  at  Cambridge,  in  1730.  His 
best  known  work  is  the  Forty  Select  Anthems^ 
printed  in  1773.  His  Oratorios,  and  Pastoral 
Operas,  have  long  been  forgotten.  He  was,  at  one 
time,  a  great  admirer  of  Handel ;  who,  however, 
never  forgave  his  secession  to  the  party  of  his  rival, 
Buononcini. 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Dr.  Greene  collected 
the  splendid  series  of  Services  and  Anthems  by  old 
English  Composers,  afterwards  published  by  his 
pupil,  Dr.  William  Boyce,  [1710—1779],  under  the 
title  of  Cathedral  Music,  in  three  volumes,  between 
the  years  1760  and  1778.  Dr.  Boyce  wrote  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Masques,  and  other  dramatic 
pieces;  but  he  is  best  known  as  a  Composer  of 
Services  and  Anthems,  of  which  two  volumes  were 
published,  posthumously,  in  1779,  and  1790. 

Less  talented  than  these,  though  sound  Musicians, 
and  respectable  Composers,  were  Dr.  William  Hayes, 
[1707—1777]  ;  his  son.  Dr.  Philip  Hayes  ;  [1738— 
1797];  James  Kent,  [1700—1776];  and  Dr.  John 
Alcock,  [1715—1806].  Dr.  James  Nares,  [1715— 
1783],  far  exceeded  them  in  purity  of  style,  and 
grace  of  melody  ;  and  still  more  highly  accomplished 
was  Jonathan  Battishill,  [1738 — 1801],  whose  glee. 
In  Paper  Case,  is  a  never-failing  attraction  at  the 
meetings  of  the  Madrigal  Society,  and  Catch  Club ; 
and  whose  Anthems,  Call  to   rememhrance^  and 


I  8th  Century.]    The  E^iglisJi  School. 


321 


Deliver  us,  0  Lord,  are  among  the  best  of  the 
period. 

With  these  Composers,  we  may  fairly  bring  our 
notices  of  the  Enghsh  Schools  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  to  a  close.  We  shall  see,  farther  on,  the 
work  that  has  been  accomplished  by  their  successors. 


END  OF  BOOK  THE  FOURTH. 


Y 


BOOK  THE  FIFTH. 

MUSIC    IN    THE  NINETEENTH 
CENTUEY. 


T  2 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


THE  SEVEN  LESSER  LIGHTS. 

The  events  recorded  in  our  Fourth  Book  will  have 
prepared  the  reader  to  find  the  prospects  of  Music,  at 
the  opening  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  very  brilliant 
indeed.  Haydn  and  Beethoven  were  still  alive  :  the 
one,  busily  engaged  in  perfecting  his  two  greatest 
works.  The  Creation^  and  The  Seasons ;  the  other, 
advancing,  with  rapid  strides,  in  a  direction 
untried  by  his  predecessors,  and  destined  to 
lead  him  into  regions  the  mysteries  of  which  he 
alone  was  able  to  interpret.  Mozart  had  passed 
away ;  but  his  work  had  left  an  indelible  impress 
upon  the  history  of  Art,  and  its  influence  upon  its 
progress  was  perhaps  even  greater  than  it  had  been 
during  his  life-time.  Except  in  England,  where 
his  memory  has  never  ceased  to  flourish,  Handel 
had  been  very  nearly  forgotten.  So  far  as  his 
own  Compositions  were  concerned.  Bach  also  was 
consigned  to  little  less  complete  oblivion,  even 
in  Germany :  but  his  influence  upon  the  German 


326       The  Seven  Lesser  Lights,    [19TH  Century. 

Schools  was  as  powerful  as  ever ;  and  clear  traces 
of  his  technical  skill,  his  admirable  method  of 
Part-writing,  and  his  exhaustless  ingenuity,  were 
discernible  in  every  branch  of  Art.  Gluck,  too,  had 
left  his  ineffaceable  mark  upon  Dramatic  Music,  both 
in  Germany,  and  in  France ;  and,  though  Italy  still 
refused  all  open  acceptance  of  his  principles,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  silently  exercised  a  very 
great  effect  upon  her  best  writers,  not  excepting 
even  Rossini  himself.  Having  once  been  taught 
what  dramatic  truth  really  meant,  Composers  and 
Vocalists  were,  alike,  ashamed  to  set  it  at  open 
defiance.  The  monstrosities  of  Hasse  and  Porpora 
were  no  longer  possible,  even  in  the  Italian  Opera 
Buffa. 

In  truth,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  pro- 
mising period  for  Art  than  the  closing  decads  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  and  the  opening  ones  of 
the  Nineteenth.  Though  Gluck  and  Mozart  no 
longer  ruled  the  Stage ;  though  all  the  giants,  save 
only  Haydn  and  Beethoven,  had  passed  away, 
the  world  was  rife  with  talent :  and,  on  every  side, 
arose  men  of  genius,  who,  if  unable  to  stand  side  by 
side  with  the  greatest  of  the  great,  to  crown  with 
their  life-work  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  Temple 
of  Fame,  are  at  least  able  to  claim  a  position  very 
little  below  them,  and  to  shine,  as  a  constellation  of 
Lesser  Lights,  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood. 


A.D.  1 797-1828.]       Schubert.  327 

Of  these  Lesser  Liglits,  seven  were  exceptionally 
brilliant:  in  the  German  Schools,  Schubert  and 
Weber,  Spohr,  Mendelssohn,  and  Schumann;  in 
Italy,  Cimarosa;  in  France,  the  domiciled  Italian, 
Cherubini.  Of  each  of  these  great  geniuses  it  is 
needful  that  we  should  say  a  few  words  in  detail. 

The  life  of  Feanz  Peter  Schubert  presents  us 
with  a  picture  no  less  sad  than  that  furnished  by  the 
biography  of  Pergolesi.  All  the  world  loves  his 
Music,  now.  All  artists  revere  his  memory ;  all 
students  of  history  long  to  know  all  that  can  be 
known  about  him.  Sixty  years  ago,  no  one  cared 
whether  he  lived,  or  died  :  no  generous  admirers 
held  out  a  friendly  hand  to  save  him  from  dying  of 
starvation.  He  was  born,  at  No.  54,  in  the  Nuss- 
dorfer  Strasse,  at  Vienna,  January  31,  1797.^  His 
father,  a  schoolmaster  in  the  Leopoldstadt,  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  education,  to  the  best  of  his 
abihty ;  but,  the  beauty  of  his  voice,  and  his  ex- 
traordinary musical  talent,  procured  him  a  place  in 
the  Choir  of  the  Imperial  Chapel ;  and,  in  1808,  he 
was  formally  received  in  the  Choristers'  School, 
called  the  '  Convict,'^  in  the  Piaristengasse,  in  the 

^  The  Nussdorfer  Strasse  was,  at  that  time,  called  Auf  dem 
Himmelpfortgrund ;  and  the  house — which  now  bears  Schubert's 
name,  on  a  marble  tablet — was  then  numbered  72. 

2  Latin,  convidus  (from  convivo),  a  living  together,  under  the 
same  roof,  and  at  the  same  table. 


328 


L  eichenfantasie. 


[a.d.  i8ii. 


Josephstadt.  Here,  lie  learned  to  sing,  and  to 
play  tlie  Violin ;  but,  for  education  in  the  higher 
branches  of  Art,  he  was  left  entirely  to  his  own 
resources.  From  first  to  last,  he  was  a  self-taught 
genius.  He  began  to  compose,  'by  the  Light  of 
Nature,'  almost  immediately  after  his  entrance  to 
the  School ;  and  some  of  his  early  attempts  are  still 
in  existence ;  among  them,  a  Song  in  seventeen 
Movements,  called  Leichenfantasie^  adapted  to 
Schiller's  Poem,  Mit  erstorbenem  Scheinen,  and 
dated,  1811. 

Schubert  left  the  '  Convict,'  on  the  breaking  of 

his  voice,  in  1813 ;  and  then  began  his  hard  life. 

To  escape  the  conscription,  he  became  a  teacher  in 

his  father's  school ;  he  remained  there,  for  three 

years,  in  charge  of  the  lowest  class.    But,  he  could 

not  control  his  genius.    He  composed  his  first  opera, 

Des  Teufels  Lustschloss,  in  1814 ;  and  his  First  Mass, 

in  F,  in  the  same  year.    The  Mass  was  sung  at  the 

Lichtenthal  Church ;  but  the  Opera  has  never  been 

performed,  and  the  Second  Act  is  now  lost.^  Other 

Compositions  followed,  in  rapid  succession.  In 

1815,  he  finished  his  Second  Symphony,  in  Bb.^  The 

Third  Symphony,  in  D,  was  produced  in  the  same 

3  A  servant  used  it  for  lighting  fires,  in  1848  ;  and  burned  the 
Second  and  Third  Acts  of  Claudine  von  Villahella,  in  like 
manner. 

*  The  First  Symphony,  in  D,  is  dated  Oct.  28,  1813;  and 
must  consequently  have  been  written  at  the  '  Convict.' 


A.D.  1816.]  ScJutbert's  Songs.  329 

year;  besides  five  important  Operas,  Glaudine  von 
Villahella,  Die  heiden  Freunde  von  Salamanca,  Der 
S^piegelritter,  Die  Minnesdnger,  and  Adrast ;  two 
Operettas,  Fernando,  and  Der  vierjdhrige  Fosten  ;  137 
Songs  ;  and  a  host  of  other  pieces,  the  number  of 
which  would  be  absolutely  incredible,  but  for  the 
dates  in  his  own  handwriting. 

In  1816,  Schubert  applied  for  the  appointment  of 
Director  at  a  Government  School  of  Music  at  Lai- 
bach,  with  a  salary  of  500  Vienna-florins  (^21)  but 
was  rejected,  on  the  ground  of  imperfect  qualifi- 
cation. But,  nothing  could  discourage  him.  He 
seemed  impelled  to  write ;  whether  he  would,  or 
not.  And  all  he  wrote  was  beautiful.  His  Songs 
are  known  to  everyone :  and,  undoubtedly,  his 
genius  shines  more  brightly  in  these  than  in  any  of 
his  other  compositions.  For,  here,  it  was  absolutely 
unfettered.  It  is  true  that  the  effect  of  direct  in- 
spiration is  equally  evident,  in  his  Symphonies,  and 
other  longer  works ;  but,  in  these,  the  most  reverent 
of  critics  cannot  blind  his  eyes  to  the  results  of  an 
imperfect  musical  education.  Where  learning  is 
indispensable,  Schubert  does  not  show  himself  at 
his  best.  His  ideas  came  so  quickly,  that  it  needed 
enormous  technical  power  to  reduce  them  to  logical 
sequence  :  and  the  only  power  he  possessed  was  that 
with  which  ISTature  herself  had  endowed  him.  And 
hence  it  is,  that  his  longer  Movements,  while  over- 


330  AlpJionso  und  Estrella.      [a.d.  1822. 

flowing  with  excess  of  beauty,  lack  tlie  consistency 
whicli  make  the  Symphonies  of  Mozart  and  Beet- 
hoven imperishable. 

In  1818,  Schubert  was  engaged  as  resident 
teacher  of  Music,  in  the  family  of  Count  Johann 
Esterhazy,  at  whose  country  seat,  at  Zelesz,  in 
Hungary,  he  passed  the  summer.  A  very  impro- 
bable story  has  been  told  of  a  hopeless  passion  said 
to  have  been  entertained  by  the  young  Musician  for 
Count  Johann's  second  daughter,  the  Countess 
Caroline  Esterhazy;  and  endeavours  have  been 
made  to  show  that  his  life  was  more  cruelly  sad- 
dened by  this  sentimental  romance,  than  by  the 
actual  privations  of  which  he  was  the  victim.  But 
the  story  rests  on  very  weak  authority,  and  has 
never  been  confirmed.  At  any  rate,  neither  senti- 
ment, nor  poverty,  were  able  to  interruj)t  the  course 
of  his  ceaseless  stream  of  production.  He  wrote, 
for  the  sake  of  writing ;  and  very  rarely  heard  his 
works  performed.  Kone  of  his  Dramatic  Music  was 
given  to  the  world,  until  1820,  when  Die  Zwillings- 
brude}\  an  Operetta  in  one  Act,  was  produced  at 
the  Karnthnerthor  Theater,  and  barely  lived  through 
six  representations.  In  the  same  year,  Die  Zauber- 
harfe  was  produced,  with  better  success,  at  the 
Theater  an-der-Wien.  Alfonso  und  Estrella,  com- 
pleted in  1822,  was  never  performed  during  his  life- 
time ;  nor  was  Die  Verschworenen,  written  in  1823 ; 


A.D.  1823.]  Rosamunde.  331 

and,  worst  of  all,  the  greatest  of  all  his  dramatic  works, 
Fierahras,  though  written,  in  response  to  a  direct 
commission,  for  the  Court  Theatre,  was  rejected,  in 
1824,  '  in  consequence  of  the  badness  of  the  libretto' 
This  was  a  bitter  disappointment  indeed ;  and  the 
cause  of  much  vexation  ;  and  Eosamunde — a  drama, 
written  by  Madame  von  Chezy,  the  authoress  of  the 
libretto  of  Euryanthe,  and  for  which  Schubert  only 
composed  the  Incidental  Music — though  produced, 
in  due  form,  at  the  Theater  an-der-Wien,  survived 
but  two  representations,  notwithstanding  the  success 
achieved  by  the  Overture  and  Entr'actes. 

We  cannot  even  pause  to  enumerate  the  hundredth 
part  of  Schubert's  works;  nor  can  we  follow  the 
gifted  Composer  through  all  his  troubles.  All  his 
life  long,  he  was  absorbed  by  the  production  of  his  de- 
lightful Music :  and,  all  his  life  long,  he  was  the  victim 
of  grinding  poverty,  in  its  most  cruel  form.  After 
the  rejection  of  Alfonso  und  Estrella,  and  Fierabras, 
he  writes,  in  a  letter  still  extant,  '  Every  night,  I  go 
to  sleep,  hoping  that  I  may  never  awake  again ;  and 
every  morning  brings  back  the  torture  of  the  pre- 
vious day.' 

In  truth.  Death  was  nearer  than  he,  perhaps,  ex- 
pected ;  for,  his  life  was  as  short  as  it  was  sad. 
While  at  supper,  at  the  Rothen  Kreuz,  in  the 
Himmelpfortgrund,  on  the  13th  of  October,  1828, 
he  suddenly  became  delirious.    He  had  been  ill,  for 


332 


Death  of  Schubert. 


[a.d.  1828. 


some  little  time  before  this,  but,  afterwards,  grew 
perceptibly  worse  ;  and,  on  the  19tli  of  November, 
he  breathed  his  last. 


Schubert  left  no  will ;  for  he  had  nothing  to  be- 
queath. The  official  inventory,  taken  after  his 
death,  valued  his  possessions  at  63  Vienna-florins — 
about  £2  10s.  0^^.  He  is  buried,  at  the  Ortsfriedhof, 
near  the  grave  of  Beethoven,  in  a  spot  of  ground 
bought  for  him  with  the  hard-earned  savings  of  his 
brother,  Ferdinand.  It  is  probable  that  a  great 
many  of  his  Compositions  have  been  lost ;  but  the 
list  of  those  that  remain  to  us  is  enormous ; 
including  18  Operas  and  other  Dramatic  Pieces; 


Fig  45. 


FEANZ  PETEE  SCHUBEET. 


A.D.  1 786-1 826.]    Carl  Maria  von  Weber.  333 

10  Symphonies;  8  Sacred  Works;  24  Pianoforte 
Sonatas  ;  and  no  less  than  457  published  songs. 
No  complete  edition  of  them  has  ever  yet  been 
given  to  the  world;  but  one  is  now  in  process  of 
publication,  by  Messrs.  Breitko:ff  and  Hartel,  of 
Leipzig. 

Gael  Maeia  von  Webee,  a  younger  son  of  Baron 
Franz  Anton  von  Weber,  by  his  second  wife,  Geno- 
vefa  von  Brenner,  was  born,  at  Eutin,  December  18, 
1786.  His  family  had  long  been  noted  for  its  devotion 
to  Art.  Constance  Weber,  the  vocalist,  who  married 
Mozart,  in  1782,  and,  afterwards  became  the  wife  of 
the  Baron  von  Mssen,  was  his  first  cousin.  His  uncle, 
Fridolin  von  Weber,  was  an  accomplished  amateur ; 
and  his  father,  even  while  holding  the  appointment 
of  Financial  Councillor  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
devoted  the  best  part  of  his  time  to  the  study  of 
the  Yiohn.  Unfortunately,  the  Financial  Councillor 
was  a  selfish  spendthrift,  who  wasted  his  young 
wife's  fortune,  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  and  re- 
duced his  children  to  a  condition  little  better  than 
that  of  poor  strolling  Musicians. 

Carl  Maria  was  a  delicate  child,  afflicted  with 
congenital  disease  of  the  hip-bone;  incapable  of 
walking  until  he  was  four  years  old,  and  yet  able, 
even  at  that  early  age,  to  sing,  and  play  upon  the 
Piano,  with  extraordinary  facility.    His  father  made 


334 


Das  Waldmddchen.        [a.d.  1800. 


the  most  of  liis  precocious  talent,  dragging  him  from 
town  to  town,  in  the  character  of  an  '  infant  pro- 
digy,' and  compelling  him,  as  he  grew  older,  to 
compose  incessantly,  in  a  wild  hap-hazard  manner 
quite  unworthy  of  his  wonderful  natural  gifts. 
Ostensibly,  he  did  his  best  to  give  the  little  Carl 
Maria  a  good  general  education,  and  to  place  him 
under  the  best  professors  of  the  time  for  his  instruc- 
tion in  Music  :  but,  the  constant  change  of  masters 
consequent  upon  the  vagrant  life  he  was  leading 
neutralized  all  the  benefit  the  child  might  otherwise 
have  derived  from  the  desultory  form  of  instruction 
which  alone  was  open  to  him.  At  Salzburg,  he 
was  taught  by  Michael  Haydn,  the  great  Composer's 
younger  brother.  At  Munich,  he  was  placed  under 
the  Court-Organist,  Kalcher,  who  took  great  pains 
with  him.  At  Vienna,  though  Albrechtsberger, 
and  Haydn  himself  were  still  living,  he  took  lessons 
from  the  Abbe  Vogler,  who,  though  kind,  and 
sympathetic,  was  quite  incapable  of  training  so 
great  a  genius.  But,  the  genius  was  great  enough 
to  survive  all  these  trials — and  many  more. 

Weber's  first  Opera,  Das  Waldmddclien^^  com- 
posed before  he  had  fully  completed  his  fourteenth 
year,  was  produced,  with  very  little  effect,  at  Frei- 
berg, in  Saxony,  November  24,  1800.    His  second, 

^  Afterwards  remodelled,  under  the  title  of  Sylvana. 


A.D.  i8i  I.]    Der  Beherrscher  der  Geister,  335 

Teier  Schnoll  und  seine  Nachbarn,  first  publicly 
performed,  at  Augsburg,  in  1803,  was  also  very 
coldly  received.  In  1806,  lie  began  a  tliird  Opera, 
Buhezahl,  wbicli,  unhappily,  lie  never  completed ; 
and  of  wliicli  only  a  Chorus  of  Spirits,  a  Quintett, 
and  an  Air  and  Chorus  for  a  Bass  voice,  have  been 
preserved  to  us  in  their  original  form.  The  Over- 
ture, however,  remodelled  by  the  Composer,  and 
published,  in  1811,  under  the  title  Der  Beherrsclier 
der  Geister,  {The  Ruler  of  the  Spii^its),  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  finest  of  his  instrumental  productions. 
In  1810,  Das  Waldmadchen  was  reproduced,  at 
Frankfort,  under  the  new  title  of  Sylvana ;  but, 
again,  with  very  doubtful  success.  And  it  fared 
but  little  better,  when  revived  at  Berlin,  in  1812, 
and  again,  in  1814.  But,  the  little  Operetta  Ahu 
Hassan,  first  performed,  at  Munich,  in  1811,  was 
received  with  great  applause,  and  soon  became  a 
popular  favourite. 

After  many  alternations  of  success  and  dis- 
appointment, in  Prague,  Berlin,  Leipzig,  Gotha, 
and  other  favoured  centres  of  Art,  Weber  committed 
the  first  note  of  his  greatest  work  to  paper,  on  the 
2nd  of  July,  1817,  six  months  after  his  acceptance 
of  the  appointment  of  Kapellmeister  at  the  Court 
Theatre  at  Dresden. 

As  early  as  the  year  1810,  his  attention  had 


33^        Fwst  idea  of  Der  Freischiltz.    [a.d.  i8io. 

been  directed  to  a  Legend,  published  in  Apel's 
Gespenster  GescMcMen,  which  made  so  deep  an 
impression  upon  him,  that  he,  and  his  friend  A.  von 
Dusch,  began  to  throw  it  into  operatic  form,  on 
the  night  on  which  they  first  read  it.  Von  Dusch, 
however,  was  prevented  from  completing  the  literary 
part  of  the  scheme  ;  and,  for  the  time  being,  the 
idea  was  laid  aside.  But  "Weber  never  forgot  it ; 
and,  soon  after  his  settlement  at  Dresden,  he  was 
tempted  to  re-consider  the  subject,  very  seriously, 
in  conjunction  with  the  well-known  writer,  Friedrich 
Kind,  who  seized  upon  the  idea,  with  avidity,  and 
at  once  threw  the  story  of  *  The  Seventh  Bullet ' 
into  the  form  of  an  excellent  libretto,  suitable  for  a 
Romantic  Opera,  in  Three  Acts.  Kind  began  his 
part  of  the  work  on  the  12th  of  February ;  finished 
the  First  Act,  on  the  19th ;  and  sent  the  complete 
libretto  to  Weber,  on  the  1st  of  March,  with  the 
title  of  Des  Jdgers  Braut.  Weber  threw  himself  into 
the  scheme  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  :  and  the  pro- 
bability is,  that  he  had  already  mentally  completed 
a  considerable  portion  of  it,  before  he  wrote  in  his 
journal  the  interesting  entry — '  July  2,  1817.  The 
first  note  of  Des  Jdgers  Braut  has  been  written  to-day.' 
The  progress  of  the  work  was  many  times  inter- 
rupted— once,  very  happily,  by  the  Composer's 
marriage,  on  December  20,  1817,  with  the  popular 
vocalist,  Carolina  Brandt.    But,  on  the  13th  of 


A.D.  1 82 1.]  Der  Freischiitz.  337 

May,  1820,  the  work  was  crowned  by  the  comple- 
tion of  the  wonderful  Overture,  the  composition 
of  which  had  been  deferred  until  all  the  rest 
of  the  Music  was  finished,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  the  more  easily  moulded  into  a  com- 
prehensive synopsis  of  the  whole.  And,  in 
the  same  year,  the  Composer  furnished  the 
Incidental  Music  for  P.  A.  Wolff's  Melodrama, 
Tredosa, 

By  this  time,  Weber's  position  at  Dresden  had 
been  rendered  so  intolerably  disagreeable,  by  Court 
intrigues,  and  theatrical  jealousies,  that  he  deter- 
mined upon  bringing  out  both  the  Opera,  and  the 
Melodrama  in  Berlin.  But  intrigue  was  no  less 
prevalent  in  the  Prussian  capital  than  in  Dresden. 
Gasparo  Spontini,  then  lately  settled  at  Berlin,  in 
the  character  of  Court  Kapellmeister,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  prevent  the  performance  of  Weber's 
masterpiece ;  or,  failing  that,  to  mar  its  success. 
But,  in  this  case,  at  least,  jealousy  and  intrigue 
proved  totally  unable  to  jjrevent  the  triumph  of 
genius.  The  first  performance  of  Preciosa,m  1820, 
formed  a  fitting  preparation  for  the  new  Opera, 
which  was  produced,  under  its  now  well-known 
title,  Der  Freischutz,  on  the  18th  of  June,  1821 — 
the  anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo — with  a 
success  which  far  exceeded  the  most  extiavagant 
hopes,  either  of  the  Composer,  or  his  friends.   Up  to 

z 


338 


Der  Freisch  iitz .  [ a  .  d  .  1 8  2  r . 


the  termination  of  the  last  rehearsal,^  the  fate  of  the 
piece  seemed  more  than  doubtful ;  but  a  veritable 
triumph  was  reserved  for  the  eventful  evening.  The 
Overture  was  re- demanded,  with  a  perfect  storm  of 
applause  :  and  the  success  of  the  piece  was  assured, 
from  beginning  to  end.^  The  ceaseless  flow  of 
Melody  throughout  the  entire  Opera,  is  so  irresistibly 
enchanting,  that  critics  have,  not  inaptly,  described 
it  as  '  the  exhaustive  development  of  a  glorified 
Volkslied.'  But,  its  fullest  strength  lies  in  its 
intense  dramatic  power.  The  weird  horror  of  the 
Music  adapted  to  the  great  Scene  of  the  Incanta- 
tion, in  the  Wolfs  Grlen,  exceeds  all  that  has  ever 
been  attempted  in  the  true  Romantic  School ,;  ,and^ 
from  the  first  bar,  to  the  last,  there  is  not  a  note 
in  the  Opera  which  does  not  tend  to  enhance  the 
interest  of  the  Scene  in  which  it  is  placed. 

Weber's  next  Great  Opera  was  Euryanthe,  The 
libretto  for  this  was  furnished  by  Frau  Helmina  von 
Chezy — for,  notwithstanding  the  world-wide  fame 

^  For  an  intensely  interesting  record  of  the  events  which  accom- 
panied the  first  performance  of  Der  Freischiltz,  we  are  indebted  to 
the  personal  recollections  of  "Weber's  devoted  friend  and  pupil,  the 
late  Sir  Julius  Benedict,  who  was  present  on  the  occasion,  and  has 
narrated  the  circumstances  in  his  invaluable  Life  of  C.  M.  von 
Weher  (S.  Low  &  Co.,  1883). 

'  The  original  cast  of  the  characters  was  as  follows  :  Agatha — 
Mad.  Seidler ;  Aennchen — Mdlle.  Johanna  Eunicke  ;  Max — Herr 
Stiimer  ;  and  Caspar — Herr  Bliime. 


A.D.  1823.] 


Eiiryanthe. 


339 


attained  by  Der  Freischutz,  Kind  refused  to  write 
again,  in  union  with  "Weber,  in  consequence  of  the 
rejection,  hj  the  latter,  of  a  Scene  with  the  Hermit, 
intended  by  the  Poet  to  form  the  Introduction  to 
the  First  Act.  Frau  von  Chezy  was  vastly  inferior 
to  Kind,  as  a  Poet :  yet  we  cannot  but  think  that 
the  abuse  which  has  been  so  lavishly  expended  upon 
the  libretto  of  Euryanthe  is  unmerited.  The  story 
— bearing,  in  its  leading  incidents,  a  close  analogy 
to  those  of  Oymheline,  and  Lohengrin — gives  rise  to 
situations  of  deep  dramatic  interest.  The  secret  of 
the  Funeral  Vault  is  romantic,  to  the  last  degree ; 
and  its  weird  colouring  is  immeasurably  increased 
by  Weber's  original  intention— now  very  rarely 
carried  out  by  dramatic  managers — that  the  Curtain 
should  temporarily  rise,  during  the  progress  of  the 
Overture,  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  the  Tomb 
which  forms  the  last  resting-place  of  Emma's  coffin, 
and  then  fall  again,  while  the  Orchestra  prepares 
the  audience  for  the  chivalric  pomp  of  the  Opening 
Scene  of  the  First  Act.  It  is  true,  that,  in  the 
inimitable  Largo  which  Weber  intended  to  accom- 
pany this  temporary  elevation  of  the  Curtain,  the 
ghastly  horror  of  the  Scene  is  more  faithfully  de- 
picted, by  the  shivering  tones  of  the  unmuted  Yiole, 
beneath  the  strange  harmony  of  the  muted  "Violins, 
than  it  could  possibly  have  been  by  any  amount  of 
scenic  arrangement.    But,  the  scenic  arrangement 

z  2 


340 


Eitryanthe. 


[a.d.  1823. 


does  undoubtedly  enliance  the  gruesome  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  Orchestra,  very  powerfully  indeed :  and, 
surely,  no  Stage-manager  is  justified  in  omitting 
this  potent  engine  of  dramatic  effect.  But,  however 
it  may  be  placed  upon  the  Stage,  Euryantlie  will 
never  fail  to  make  its  mark.  The  absence  of  spoken 
Dialogue  proclaims  its  right  to  recognition  as  a 
Musical  Drama  of  the  highest  order :  and  it  does, 
in  fact,  stand  before  us  as  the  undeniable  proto- 
type of  the  grandest  creations  of  modern  art. 

Euryanthe  was  first  performed,  in  Vienna,  at  the 
Karnthnerthor  Theater,  October  25,  1823 ;  and  its 
reception,  though  enthusiastic  to  the  highest  degree, 
appears,  in  consequence  of  some  unavoidable  acci- 
dents, to  have  presented  an  alternation  of  triumphs 
and  cruel  disappointments.^  But,  the  Opera  made 
its  mark.  Though  never  so  popular  as  Der  Frei- 
schutz,  it  still  holds  its  place  on  the  Stage:  and,  in 
spite  of  all  that  can  be  said  against  the  libreMo,  it 
still  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  Musical  Dramas 
that  has  ever  been  given  to  the  world. 

"Weber's  third  and  last  great  Opera  was  written, 
at  the  request  of  Mr.  Charles  Kemble,  for  Covent 
Garden  Theatre.  The  libretto — of  course,  an  English 
one — was  written  by  the  late  Mr.  Planche,  on  the 
lines  of  Wieland's  Oheron^  after  which  Poem  the 

^  See  Sir  Julius  Benedict's  interesting  account  of  the  circum- 
stances, in  Lis  'Life  of  C.  M.  von  Weber;'  p.  91  seq. 


A.D.  l826.] 


Oder  on. 


341 


Opera  was  named.  In  accordance  with  the  then 
invariable  custom,  Oheron  was  unhappily  deformed, 
to   a  disastrous   extent,  with  spoken  Dialogue. 


Fig.  46. 

KARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


Weber  began  his  part  of  the  work  in  1824,  when  he 
was  already  far  gone  in  a  rapid  consumption  ;  and 
finished  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  Overture,  on 


342  The  Death  of  Weber.        [a.d.  1826. 

the  13th  of  January,  'J  826.  After  sixteen  laborious 
rehearsals,  it  was  produced,  at  Covent  Garden,  on 
the  12th  of  April,  1826,  with  most  triumphant 
success :  Miss  Paton  taking  the  part  of  the  Frima 
donna;  Madame  Yestris,  that  of  Fatima;  and 
Braham,  that  of  Sir  Huon.  Kemble  paid  the  Com- 
poser ^1000  for  this,  his  last  great  work;  and  the 
visit  to  England  was,  in  every  way,  a  great  success. 
But,  the  strain  on  poor  Weber's  powers  was  more 
than  he  could  bear;  and,  on  the  5th  of  June,  1826, 
he  was  found  dead,  in  his  bed,  at  the  house  of  his 
kind  and  universally-beloved  host,  Sir  George  Smart, 
in  Great  Portland  Street. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Weber's  brilliant  and 
beautiful  Piano-forte  Music,  in  another  place.^  He 
was  the  undoubted  originator  of  the  gorgeous  and 
elaborate  School  of  Piano-forte  Composition  in  which 
so  many  honours  have  been  won  by  Mendelssohn, 
Sir  Sterndale  Bennett,  and  other  modern  writers. 
Weber  also  wrote  two  fine  Masses ;  and  two 
Symphonies,  which  last,  however,  cannot  be  classed 
with  his  best  works  :  besides  a  great  quantity  of 
miscellaneous  Vocal  and  Instrumental  pieces,  and  a 
large  collection  of  magnificent  Songs. 

LuDWiG  (or  Louis)  Spohr  was  born  at  Brimswick, 
April  25,  1784 ;  and  studied  the  Violin,  first,  in  that 
town,  and,  afterwards,  during  the  course  of  a  pro- 
3  See  p.  288. 


A.D.  1812.]        Das  jiingste  Gericht,  343 

tracted  musical  tour,  with  Franz  Eck.  In  the  Art 
of  Composition  he  was  almost  self-taught ;  but  he 
wrote  Violin  Duets,  and  other  Chamber  Music,  at  a 
very  early  age,  and  published  his  First  Concerto  ior  the 
Violin,  in  1803,  by  which  time  his  command  over 
his  favourite  instrument  entitled  him  to  rank  among 
the  most  accomplished  virtuosi  in  Germany. 

In  1805,  Spohr  was  appointed  Leading  Violinist 
at  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Gotha ;  and  very  soon 
afterwards,  he  married  his  first  wife — an  accom- 
plished Harpist,  named  Dorette  Seidler — and  com- 
posed his  first  Opera,  Die  Priifung,  which,  however, 
was  never  placed  on  the  Stage.  His  second  Opera, 
Alruna,  written  in  1808,  also  failed  to  attain  a 
hearing  ;  but  his  third,  Der  ZweiJcampf  mit  der 
Geliehten,  was  successfully  performed,  at  Hamburg, 
in  1809,  and  fairly  established  his  reputation  as  a 
Composer.  His  First  Symphony,  in  F\>,  written  in 
1811,  and  his  first  Oratorio,  Das  jiingste  Gericht,^ 
completed  in  1812,  won  him  new  laurels ;  and,  in 
the  autumn  of  the  last-named  year,  he  resigned  his 
appointment  at  Gotha,  and  accepted  that  of  Leader, 
at  the  Theater  an-der-Wien,  in  Vienna,  where  his 
magnificent  playing  had  already  created  a  profound 
sensation. 

1  The  literal  translation  of  this  title  is,  The  Last  Judgment ;  but, 
the  Oratorio  known  in  England  as  Tlie  Last  Judgment  is  a  later 
one,  the  German  title  of  which  is  Die  letzten  Dinge — literally — 
The  Last  Tilings. 


344 


Faust. 


[a.d.  i8i8. 


In  1813,  Spohr  composed  his  fourth  Opera,  Faust; 
which,  however,  was  not  performed  until  five  years 
later.  He  left  Vienna,  in  1815  ;  and,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  made  a  tour  in  Italy,  for  which  he  prepared 
his  Eighth  Concerto^  the  celebrated  Scena  cantante, 
nello  stilo  drammatico,  the  most  beautiful,  by  far,  of 
all  his  compositions  for  the  Violin. 

On  his  return  to  Germany,  in  1817,  Spohr  was 
appointed  Conductor  of  the  Opera,  at  Frankfort ; 
and  here,  in  1818,  he  produced  his  Faust,  the 
greatest,  though  not  by  any  means  the  most  suc- 
cessful, of  his  Musical  Dramas.  The  libretto  of  this 
most  beautiful,  and  most  unfairly  neglected  Opera, 
is  weak  in  the  extreme.  The  story,  quite  uncon- 
nected with  that  immortalised  by  Goethe,  is  so 
inartistically  arranged  as  to  be  almost  unintelligible ; 
and,  from  first  to  last,  the  characters  are  destitute 
of  any  individuality  whatever,  beyond  that  conferred 
upon  them  by  the  Composer.  But,  the  Music  is 
admirable ;  and  so  truly  dramatic  in  character,  that 
it  invests  the  weak  situations  of  the  Drama  with  an 
interest  which  no  amount  of  intelligent  acting  could 
have  produced  without  its  aid.  And  hence  it  is, 
that  performers,  such  as  Madame  Schroeder  Devrient, 
and  Signor  Eonconi,  who  have  been  noted  for  the 
combined  excellence  of  their  singing  and  acting, 
have  won  unfading  laurels  by  their  interpretation  of 
the  principal  roles. 


A.D.  1823.] 


yessonda. 


345 


Spolii^  followed  up  the  production  of  Fau^i  by  a 
new  Opera,  Zemire  und  Azoi\  founded  on  tbe  Legend 
of  Beauty  and  the  Beast.  This  achieved  an  immense 
success ;  though  Jessonda,  produced  in  1823,  at 
Cassel,  soon  after  Spohr  had  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  Hofkapellmeister  at  the  Court  of  the  Elector, 
attained  still  greater  popularity,  both  in  Germany, 
and  other  countries.  Jessonda  is  a  true  Musical 
Drama,  without  spoken  Dialogue.  Spohr  was,  him- 
self, fully  convinced  that  it  was  upon  this  plan  alone 
that  an  Opera  could  be  logically  constructed ;  and 
he  adopted  it,  with  success,  in  some  of  his  later 
works.  But  Faust  had  been  written  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  Singspiel ;  and  it  was  not  until  its  pro- 
duction in  London,  at  the  Eoyal  Italian  Opera,  in 
1852,  that  the  Composer  himself  converted  it  into  a 
true  Opera,  by  substituting  richly  accompanied  Re- 
citative for  the  vapid  Dialogue  of  the  original 
libretto. 

For  his  nomination  to  the  appointment  of  Hof- 
kapellmeister at  Cassel,  on  New-year's  Day,  1822, 
Spohr  was  indebted  entirely  to  the  generous  recom- 
mendation of  Weber,  to  whom  the  office  had,  in  the 
first  instance,  been  ofered.  The  position  was  an 
influential  one,  and  enabled  its  fortunate  occupant 
to  bring  out  many  new  works,  under  very  favour- 
able auspices.  Among  them  were,  four  Operas,  Der 
Berggeist,  [1825],  founded  upon  the  Legend  of  Riibe- 


346 


Die  letzte7i  Dinge.         [  A .  d  .  1826. 


zahl,  the  Spirit  of  tlie  Riesengebirge ;  Pietro  von 
Ahano,  [1827],  based  upon  a  gbastlj  story  of  the 
resuscitation,  by  the  famous  Necromancer,  of  a  lady, 
long-since  dead,  and  committed  to  the  tomb  ;  Der 
Alchymist^  [1830]  ;  and  Die  Kretczfahrer,  [1845]  : 
three  Oratorios — Die  letzten  Dinge^  first  performed 
at  Diisseldorf,  in  1826,  and  known  in  England  as 
The  Last  Judgment;  Des  Heilands  letzte  Stunden, 
[1835],  known  in  England  under  several  titles,  the 
most  usual  of  which  are,  The  Crucifixion,  and  Calvary; 
and  Der  Fall  Bahylons,  composed  for  the  Norwich  Fes- 
tival, at  which  it  was  first  performed,  under  the  title 
of  The  Fall  of  Babylon,  in  1842 :  the  Thii^d  Sijmphony, 
in  C  Minor,  [1828]  ;■  the  Fourth  Symphony,  entitled 
Die  Weihe  der  Tone,  and  known  in  England  as  The 
Power  of  Sound,  [1832]  ;  the  Fifth  Sijmjphony,  in  C 
Minor,  [1836];  the  Sixth  {'Historical^)  Symphony, 
[1841]  ;  the  Seventh  Sijmphony,  for  two  Orchestras, 
entitled  Irdisches  und  Gottliches  im  Menschenleben,  (in 
England,  The  Earthly  and  the  Godly  in  the  Life  of 
Man,)  [1842],  the  Eighth  Symphony,  in  G  Minor, 
[1843] ;  the  Ninth  Symphony,  entitled  Die  Jahres- 
zeiten,  or.  The  Four  Seasons,  [1845]  :  and  an  immense 
number  of  Cantatas  and  other  longer  vocal  Com- 
positions; Concertos  iov  the  Violin,  and  other  Instru- 
ments; Quartetts;  Double  Quart etts ;  a  Violin  School, 
which  is  accepted  as  the  best  in  existence;  and 
other  works,  to  the  number  of  Op.  154,  besides 


A . D.  1859.1        TJie  Death  of  Sphor.  347 

many  other  very  important  Compositions  to  wliicli 
no  Opus.  No.  is  attached,  and  many  which  still 
remain  in  MS. 

Spohr  retained  his  appointment,  at  Cassel,  until 
the  year  1857,  when  he  was  pensioned  off,  very  much 
against  his  own  wish.  He  conducted  Jessonda,  at 
Prague,  in  1858  ;  and  died,  at  Cassel,  October  16, 
1859.  His  first  wife,  Dorette,  died  in  1834  ;  and,  in 
1835,  he  married  Madlle.  Marianne  Pfeiffer,  an  ex- 
cellent Musician,  and  a  lady  of  high  mental  culture. 
He  visited  England  six  times  :  in  1820,  at  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Philharmonic  Society;  in  1839,  to 
conduct  The  Crucifixion,  at  the  Norwich  Festival ; 
in  1843,  to  conduct  The  Fall  of  Babylon,  at  Exeter 
Hall;  in  1847,  when  he  conducted  The  Last  Jiidg- 
ment.  The  Fall  of  Babylon,  and  Calvary,  for  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society;  in  .1852,  to  conduct 
Faust,  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  ;  and  lastly,  in 
1853,  to  conduct  his  Seventh  Symphony,  and  other 
works,  at  the  New  Philharmonic  Concerts.  It  was 
he,  who,  in  1820,  first  used  the  Conductor's  Baton 
at  the  Concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  Pre- 
viously to  this  time,  it  had  been  the  custom  for  the 
Conductor  to  sit  at  the  Pianoforte ;  a  practice  with 
which  Mendelssohn  also  refused  to  comply,  in  1829. 

Spohr' s  private  character  was  a  remarkably  noble 
one,  and  gained  him  the  respect  of  all  with  whom 
he  came  into  contact.    He  was  always  ready  to 


34^  The  Birth  of  Mendelssohn,     [a.d.  1809. 


delight  liis  friends  by  playing  to  them,  in  private  ; 
and,  on  such  occasions,  always  played  his  very  best.^ 
In  truth,  he  was  a  loyal  lover  of  Art,  for  its  own 
sake ;  and,  from  first  to  last,  conscientiously  used 
his  talents  for  its  advancement.  His  style,  though 
marked  by  an  unmistakable  individuality,  is  free  from 
the  slightest  taint  of  mannerism;  and  derives  an 
indescribable  charm  from  his  constant  use  of 
chromatic  progressions,  and  extreme  or  unusual 
keys. 

Jakob  Ludwig  Felix  Mendelssohn-Baetholdt, 
grandson  of  the  well-known  philosopher  and  literary 
genius,  Moses  Mendelssohn,  was  born,  at  Hamburg, 
Feb.  3,  1809,  but  educated  chiefly  at  Berlin,  to  which 
city  his  father,  Abraham  Mendelssohn,  migrated,  in 
1811,  in  consequence  of  the  occupation  of  Hamburg 
by  the  French.  Felix  and  his  sister  Fanny  (born  in 
1805)  were  instructed  in  Music,  first,  by  their 
mother.  Lea — nee  Salomon — and,  a  little  later, 
during  a  temporary  sojourn  in  Paris,  by  Madame 

2  We  never  remember  having  heard  him  to  greater  advantage 
than  in  the  year  1846,  when  he  led  his  Double  Quartett  in  E  Minor, 
at  Leipzig,  during  the  course  of  a  happy  visit  to  Mendelssohn, 
who  entertained  the  highest  respect  for  his  genius.  The  little 
party  was  almost  an  extempore  one,  arranged  at  a  few  hours'  notice  ; 
and  the  number  of  privileged  guests  was  extremely  limited  :  yet, 
he  played  as  if  the  whole  musical  world  had  been  there  to  listen  to 
him,  and  enchanted  all  present  by  the  beauty  of  his  performance. 


A.D.  1821.]      The  First  Visit  to  Goethe.  349 

Bigot.  On  their  return  to  Berlin,  tliey  were  placed 
under  Ludwig  Bergei*,  for  the  Piano-forte,  Zelter, 
for  Thorough-bass,  and  Composition,  and  Henning, 
for  the  Violin.  Felix  first  played  in  public,  in  1818. 
His  earliest  known  Composition  is  a  Cantata,  In 
rulirend  feievKclien  Tonen,  dated  January  18,  1820. 
From  that  time  forward,  he  wrote  incessantly,  with 
a  rapidity  no  less  extraordinary  than  that  manifested 
by  Schubert.  And,  like  Schubei^t,  he  dated  his 
Compositions  with  the  most  methodical  exactitude, 
frequently  adding  the  letters,  H.cLm.  or  L.e.g.G,, 
the  meaning  of  which  he  never  confided,  even  to  his 
dearest  friends.^  The  great  collection  of  his  MSS., 
in  forty- four  volumes,  now  preserved  in  the  Berlin 
Library,  contains  many  works  belonging  to  this 
early  period ;  among  others,  two  Operettas,  and 
part  of  a  third,  five  Symphonies  for  Stringed  In- 
struments, nine  Fugues,  a  set  of  JVJotets,  and  a 
multitude  of  smaller  pieces,  all  written  in  1821,  in 
which  year  he  first  met  Weber,  and  his  beloved 
pupil,  Sir  Julius  Benedict,  and  was  present  at  the 
first  performance  of  Der  FreischiUz. 

In  IS'ovember,  1821,  Zelter  took  the  little  Felix 
to  Weimar,  on  a  visit  to  Goethe,  with  whom  he 
spent  a  delightful  fortiiight,  the  events  of  which  are 
recorded,  in  his  letters,  in  language  glowing  with 

'  H.<''.w.  lias  l)een  supposed  to  mean,  HiJf  du  mir — Help  Thou 
me.    But,  this  is  a  mere  guess. 


350 


Die  beiden  Neffen,         [a.d.  1824. 


natural  eloquence,  and  betraying  a  power  of  obser- 
vation scarcely  less  than  miraculous  in  a  boy  not  yet 
thirteen  years  old.  He  was,  indeed,  beyond  his 
age  in  everything  ;  yet,  a  true  child,  in  all  that  tends 
to  make  childhood  attractive  and  beautiful,  and 
utterly  unspoiled  by  the  attention  lavished  upon 
him  by  grown  men,  and  men  of  high  reputation 
too,  who  made  no  attempt  to  conceal  their  admira- 
tion of  his  transcendent  genius.  The  family  hved  at 
jISTo.  7  in  the  Neue  Promenade ;  and  here,  Felix,  with 
his  sisters,  Fanny,  and  E-ebecka,  and  his  brother, 
Paul,  organised  a  series  of  Sunday  Concerts,  in  which 
Musicians  of  high  standing  were  not  ashamed  to  take 
part,  though  Felix  himself  directed  the  Orchestra, 
standing  upon  a  stool,  that  he  might  be  the  better 
seen.  For  each  of  these  family  Concerts  he  produced 
some  new  work,  which  he  either  played,  or  con- 
ducted, with  the  skill  of  an  experienced  Musician. 
The  piece  selected  for  performance  on  his  fifteenth 
birthday,  Feb.  3,  1824,  was  Die  heiden  Neffen^  an 
Opera,  in  three  Acts,  which  he  had  completed  in 
1821  ;  and,  during  the  supper  which  followed, 
Zelter — who  was  not  noted  for  sentimental  indul- 
gence— drank  his  health,  and  proclaimed  him  a 
member  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Musicians,  '  in  the 
names  of  Haydn,  of  Mozart,  and  of  old  Father 
Bach.'  A  few  months  after  this,  he  composed  his 
First  Symphony  in  C  Minor  (op.  11),  his  Quartett  in 


A.D.  1827.]    Die  Hochzeit  des  Camacho,  351 

B  Minor,  (op.  3)  and  his  (posthumous)  Sestett,  (op. 
110)  ;  and  in  this  year  also  began  his  Hfelong  friend- 
ship with  Moscheles,  who  gave  him  much  valuable 
advice,  but,  when  asked  to  receive  him  as  a  pupil, 
said,  '  He  no  longer  stands  in  need  of  lessons.' 

In  1825,  Felix  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cheru- 
bini,  in  Paris;  paid  a  second  visit  to  Groethe,  at 
Weimar ;  and  completed  his  Opera,  Die  Hochzeit  des 
Camacho,  which  was  produced,  at  Berlin,  in  1827, 
but  suppressed,  after  its  first  performance,  by  a 
theatrical  intrigue,  due,  in  all  probability,  to  the 
jealousy  of  Spontini,  who  had  already  done  his  best 
to  prevent  the  success  both  of  Der  Freischutz,  and 
Jessonda. 

Felix's  sensitive  nature  was  deeply  wounded  by 
the  unfairness  with  which  Gamachos  Hochzeit  was 
treated,  both  at  the  Theatre,  and  by  the  press  ;  but 
between  the  completion  of  this  youthful  essay,  and 
its  production,  he  had  already  achieved  a  much 
greater  work — one  which  served,  almost  more  than 
any  other,  as  a  means  of  revealing  the  brightness  of 
his  genius  to  the  outer  world,  and  which  certainly 
contributed,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  attainment 
of  the  extraordinary  reputation  he  was  destined  ere 
long  to  enjoy.  The  finished  Score  of  the  Overture 
to  '  A  Midsummer  NigliVs  Dream,^  is  dated,  Berlin, 
August  6,  1826 — three  days  only  after  the  young 
Composer  had  attained  the  age  of  seventeen  years 


352  Midstunmer  Nighfs  Dreavi:  [a.d.  1829. 

and  a  lialf.  Yet,  so  clearly  did  this  marvellous 
inspiration  mark  the  maturity  of  his  Art-life,  that 
when,  by  command  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  he  wrote 
the  Entr^Ades,  and  other  Incidental  Music  to  the 
same  Drama,  in  1843,  he  was  able  to  embody  this 
Overture  in  the  perfect  scheme,  without  the  altera- 
tion of  a  single  note. 

The  Overture  was  first  publicly  performed  at 
Stettin,  in  1827 ;  and,  from  that  time  forward, 
Mendelssohn's  artistic  career  was  a  succession  of 
triumphs.  The  family  had  removed  from  the  Neue 
Promenade,  to  No.  3  Leipziger  Strasse,  an  old- 
fashioned  house,  surrounded  by  large  grounds,  in 
which  stood  a  '  Gardenhouse,'  capable  of  accommo- 
dating several  hundred  persons,  at  the  Sunday  per- 
formances. And,  here,  many  of  the  new  Composi- 
tions were  heard,  in  private,  before  they  were  openly 
given  to  the  world. 

Mendelssohn  paid  his  first  visit  to  London,  in 
1829;  and  at  once  laid  the  foundation  of  the  ever- 
increasing  popularity  with  which  he  was  regarded, 
in  this  country,  from  the  moment  of  his  first  visit, 
to  his  sad  farewell,  in  1847.  In  1830,  he  proceeded 
to  Italy,  pausing,  on  his  way,  to  visit  Goethe,  at 
Weimar,  and  planning,  and  completing,  many  im- 
portant Compositions,  during  his  absence  from 
home.  On  his  second  visit  to  London,  in  1832,  he 
played  his  Piano-forte  Concerto  in  G  Minor,  at  the 


A.D.  1836.]  Saint  Patil.  353 

Pliilharmonic ;  and  first  delighted  an  English  con- 
gregation with  his  matchless  Organ-playing,  at  S. 
Paul's  Cathedral.  His  third  and  fourth  visits  to 
this  country  took  place  in  1833,  in  which  year,  after 
his  return  to  Germany,  he  accepted  the  post  of 
'  General-Musikdirektor,'  at  Diisseldorf,  where  he 
began  his  first  Oratorio,  Saint  Faul,  and  composed 
his  Overture,  Die  sclidne  Melusine,  and  many  other 
important  works ;  attaining  so  high  a  reputation 
that,  two  years  later,  he  was  invited  to  take  the 
permanent  direction  of  the  famous  Gewandhaus 
Concerts,  at  Leipzig,  a  duty  upon  which  he  entered 
on  the  4th  of  October,  1835. 

Mendelssohn  conducted  the  first  performance  of 
Saint  Paid,  at  the  Lower  Rhine  Festival,  held  in 
Diisseldorf,  on  May  22,  1836.  On  October  3,  Sir 
George  Smart  conducted  it,  at  Liverpool.  On 
March  16, 1837,  Mendelssohn  directed  it,  at  Leipzig  ; 
and,  on  September  20,  1837,  he  again  conducted  it, 
at  the  Birmingham  Festival.  On  this,  his  fifth 
visit  to  England,  he  was  received,  if  possible,  with 
more  enthusiasm  than  ever.  He  had  been  married, 
a  few  months  previously,  toMadlle.  Cecile  Charlotte 
Sophie  Jeanrenaud,  a  lady  whose  amiable  disposi- 
tion, surpassing  beauty,  and  indescribable  charm  of 
manner,  endeared  her  to  all  who  knew  her. 
Madame  Mendelssohn  did  not  accompany  her  hus- 
band to  England,  on  this  occasion,  nor,  on  his  sixth 

A  a 


354  The  Scotch  Sy euphony,        [a.d.  1842. 


visit,  in  1840.  But,  on  his  arrival  here,  for  the 
seventh  time,  in  1842,  he  brought  her  with  him, 
and  spent  a  happy  month  in  London,  where  he  con- 
ducted his  Third  (Scotch)  Symphony,  and  some 
other  important  Compositions,  at  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts,  and  astonished  his  hearers  by  his  mar- 
vellous performances  on  the  Organ,  at  S.  Peter's, 
Cornhill,  and  Christchurch,  Xewgate  Street.^ 

*  It  was  the  author's  original  intention  to  exclude  all  personal 
reminiscences  of  his  beloved  master  from  a  work  devoted,  like  the 
present,  to  the  consideration  of  sober  historical  facts.  His  un- 
willingness to  introduce  these  details  having  been  over-ruled,  he 
has  determined,  in  accordance  with  the  example  set  by  Dr.  Burney 
with  regard  to  his  personal  reminiscences  of  Handel,  to  supply 
them  in  the  form  of  foot-notes,  which  lie  purposes  to  extract,  for 
the  most  part,  from  a  work  already  published. 

'It  was  during  Mendelssohn's  seventh  visit  to  England,  that 
the  author  of  these  pages  first  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a  personal 
introduction  to  the  Maestro  to  whom  he  owes  more  than  he  can 
ever  find  words  to  express.  The  circumstances  were  these  :  We 
had  been  reading  Cherubini,  one  morning,  with  a  dear  old  friend 
— Mr.  J.  G.  Emmett — who  possessed  a  valuable  library,  to  which 
no  earnest  student  was  ever  denied  access ;  when  a  question 
arose  as  to  the  treatment  of  a  certain  form  of  Counterpoint  by 
Sebastian  Bach.  "  If  you  will  look  on  such  and  such  a  shelf," 
said  our  friend,  who  was  totally  blind,  "  you  will  find  a  MS.  copy 
of  The  XLVIIL,  and  you  can  then  look  out  some  passages."  We 
set  up  the  loose  sheets,  on  the  desk  of  a  beautiful  old  Clavi- 
chord, the  gem  of  our  friend's  collection,  and  asked  for  the  history 
of  the  MS.,  which  was  a  very  curious  one.  "  I  bought  it  at  a 
sale,"  said  our  friend,  "  and  have  always  believed  it  to  be  a  genuine 
autograph.  I  have  a  great  mind  to  ask  Mendelssohn  about  it. 
"What  do  you  say  to  calling  upon  him,  this  morning,  and  taking 
bur  chance  of  finding  him  at  home  1 "  This  was  a  chance  indeed  ! 
Without  the  loss  of  a  minute,  we  started  on  our  way  to  Denmark 
Hill,  where  Mendelssohn  was  then  staying,  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Benecke,  Madame  Mendelssohn's  cousin.  AVe  found  him  at  home, 
and  were  received  with  the  kindest  welcome.    He  knew  our  old 


A.D.  1842.]        Visit  to  the  Queen,  355 

In  a  letter,  written  a  few  days  only  after  his 
return  to  Germany,  lie  describes,  with  graphic 
simpHcity,  his  visit,  on  the  9th  of  July,  to  Bucking- 
ham Palace,  where  he  was  received,  with  all  possible 
honour,  by  the  Queen,  and  the  Prince  Consort, 
whose  admiration  of  his  genius  was  most  sincere. 
In  the  pleasantest  and  most  unaffected  language,  he 
here  tells  us  how  '  the  Prince  Consort  played  a 
Chorale  on  the  Organ,  by  heart,  and  with  the 
Pedals,  and  so  charmingly,  and  clearly,  and  cor- 
rectly, that  it  would  have  done  credit  to  any  Pro- 
fessor ' ;  and  how,  when  he  himself  played  B.ow 
lovely  are  tJie  Messengers,  '  the  Queen  and  the  Prince 
both  began  to  sing,  and  the  Prince  changed  the 
stops  so  cleverly  that  I  was  really  enchanted ' ; 
how  he  accompanied  the  Queen  in  Schdner  und 
schdner,  (supposed  to  be  his  own,  but  really  com- 
posed by  his  sister  Fanny),  and  afterwards,  in  the 
Pllgerspruch  (really  his  own),  both  of  which  Her 
Majesty  '  sang  quite  faultlessly,  and  with  charming 
feeling  and  expression ' ;  how  the  Queen  picked  np 

friend  well,  took  the  greatest  interest  in  the  MS.,  and  pronounced 
it  genuine,  without  a  moment's  hesitation.  Noticing  the  eager- 
ness with  which  we  listened  to  his  remarks  upon  the  peculiarities 
of  the  handwriting,  he  made  us  sit  down  by  his  side,  and  pointed 
out  everything  that  was  noteworthy,  with  as  much  attention  to 
detail  as  if  he  had  been  giving  a  lecture.  Then,  he  passed  on 
to  other  subjects,  asked  us  about  our  own  plans  for  study,  and 
spoke  so  warmly  of  Leipzig,  that,  from  that  time  forward,  a  visit 
to  the  Gewandhaus  became  the  dream  of  our  life.'  {Life  of  Mcii' 
delsaohn,  by  W,  S.  Rockstro.    London,  1884.) 

A  a  2 


356 


The  Lobgesang.  [a.d.  1840. 


some  Music  that  had  been  blown  about  the  room ; 
how  he  had  to  carry  out  the  parrot,  cage  and  all,  to 
prevent  it  from  drowning  the  Music  by  its  screams ; 
and,  finally,  how  the  Prince  Consort  presented  him, 
in  the  Queen's  name,  with  '  a  beautiful  ring,  on 
which  is  engraved,  V.E;.,  1842 ' ;  and  how  Her 
Majesty  accepted  the  prof  erred  dedication  of  the 
Scotch  Symphony, 

Between  his  sixth  and  seventh  visits  to  England, 
Mendelssohn  had  done  some  very  important  work 
at  home.  In  1840,  he  composed  the  Lohgesang^  and 
Festgesang,  for  the  Centenary  Festival,  celebrated  at 
Leipzig,  in  honour  of  the  Invention  of  Printing.  He 
had  also  set  on  foot  the  project  for  erecting  a  Monu- 
ment, at  Leipzig,  in  memory  of  Sebastian  Bach ; 
and  had  made  the  first  proposals  for  the  establish- 
ment, in  that  town,  of  the  Conservatorium  der 
Musik,  which  was  afterwards  crowned  with  such 
extraordinary  success.  But,  his  labours  were  not 
confined  to  Leipzig  alone.  In  1841,  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  lY.,  King  of  Prussia,  offered  him  the 
appointment  of  Kapellmeister,  at  Berlin ;  ^  and,  in 
fulfilment  of  the  duties  connected  with  this  office, 
he  produced,  at  Potsdam,  the  Overture  and  Cho- 
ruses to  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles,  before  the  end  of 
the  year. 

'  He  had  already  accepted  the  appointment  of  Kapellmeister 
to  the  King  of  Saxony,  at  Dresden. 


A.D.  1843.]    'A  Midsummer  Nighf  s  Dream,''  357 

The  Conservatorium  was  inaugurated,  at  Leipzig, 
in  1843  ;  the  list  of  Professors  including,  for  Com- 
position, Mendelssohn,  and  Schumann ;  for  Har- 
mony and  Counterpoint,  Moritz  Hauptmann,  the 
then  Kantor  of  the  Thomas- Schule,  and  the  most 
learned  Contrapuntist  in  Europe ;  for  the  Violin, 
and  Orchestral  Classes,  Ferdinand  David ;  for  the 
Organ,  Fr.  Becker ;  and,  for  Singing,  Herren 
Pohlenz  and  Bohme,  and  Madame  Biinau  Grabau. 
This  year  was  also  rendered  remarkable  by  the  pro- 
duction, at  Potsdam,  of  the  Music  to  A  Midsummer 
Nighfs  Dream,  in  which  the  Overture,  composed  in 
1826,  was  embodied,  note  for  note.  The  complete 
work  was  first  heard,  in  London,  in  1844,  when 
Mendelssohn  himself  conducted  it,  at  the  Philhar- 
monic Concerts. 

The  most  important  work  of  the  year  1845^  was 

^  The  following  personal  reminiscences  are  extracted  from  the 
author's  Life  of  Mendelssoloi. 

'After  our  first  interview  with  Mendelssohn,  in  1842,  we  had 
never  ceased  to  hope  for  the  privilege  of  being,  some  day,  brought 
into  more  intimate  relations  with  him,  in  his  own  country  ; 
though  it  was  not  until  some  j^ears  had  passed,  that  we  were  sup- 
posed to  be  old  enough  to  take  advantage  of  the  encouragement  he 
had  then  given  us.  But,  the  right  time  came,  at  last.  AVe  knew 
that  he  never  forgot :  and,  at  the  season  of  Pentecost,  in  the  year 
1845,  we  visited  Germany,  for  the  first  time,  well  assured  that  he 
would  not  fail  to  give  us  the  good  counsel  he  had  promised. 
Eeaching  Frankfort,  at  the  beginning  of  the  bright  spring  weather, 
we  found  him  living  out  of  doors,  and  welcoming  the  sunshine, 
and  the  flowers,  with  a  delight  as  unaffected  as  that  of  the 
youngest  of  his  children.  On  the  evening  of  our  arrival,  after 
taking  us  to  see  Thorwaldsen's  lately-finished  statue  of  Groethe, 
and  the  Poet's  birthplace  in  the  Hirschgraben,  he  proposed  that 


358 


The  Organ  Sonatas,       [a.d.  1845 


accomplislied  in  Leipzig,  where  Mendelssolin  arrived, 

iu  September,  after  a  brief  residence  in  Frankfort. 

we  should  go  to  an  *  open-air  Concert/  and  led  the  way  to  a  lonely 
little  corner  of  the  Public  Gardens,  where  a  nightingale  was  sing- 
ing with  all  its  heart.  "  He  sings  here  every  evening,"  said  Men- 
delssohn, "and  I  often  come  to  hear  him.  I  sit  here,  sometimes, 
when  I  want  to  compose.  Not  that  I  am  writing  much,  now  ; 
hut,  sometimes,  I  have  a  feeling  like  this  " — and  he  twisted  his 
hands  rapidly,  and  nervously,  in  front  of  his  breast — *'and,  when 
that  comes,  I  know  that  I  must  write.  I  have  just  finished  some 
Sonatas  for  the  Organ  ;  and,  if  you  will  meet  me  at  the  Cather- 
inenkirche,  at  twelve  o'clock  to-morrow,  I  will  play  them  to  you." 

'  He  played  them,  exquisitely — the  whole  six,  straight  through. 
"We  remember  noticing  the  wonderfully  delicate  staccato  of  the 
Pedal  triplets  in  the  second  Movement  of  the  Fifth  Sonata,  which 
he  played  upon  a  single  8-feet  stop,  with  all  the  crispness  of 
Dragonetti's  most  highly-finished  pizzicato. 

'There  was  only  one  other  auditor,  besides  ourselves.  He 
parted  from  us,  at  the  Church  door ;  and  then  Mendelssohn  took 
us  home  with  him,  to  his  early  dinner,  with  Madame  Mendelssohn 
and  the  .children — Karl,  three  years  old,  Marie,  and  Paul.  He  was 
full  of  fun,  with  a  joke  for  each  of  the  little  ones ;  and  made  us 
all  cover  up  the  lower  part  of  our  faces,  to  see  what  animals  we 
were  like,  "/c/i  bin  ein  Adler^'^  he  said,  placing  his  hand  in  a 
position  which  made  the  likeness  absurdly  striking.  Madame 
Mendelssohn  was  pronounced  to  be  a  hare  ;  Karl,  a  roebuck ;  Paul, 
a  bullfinch  ;  and  we  ourselves  a  setter. 

*  Having  some  business  to  attend  to,  after  dinner,  he  left  us  for 
half  an  hour  in  his  study ;  giving  us  the  choice  of  amusing  our- 
selves with  looking  through  Felicien  David's  Le  Desert,  which  had 
just  been  sent  to  him  from  Paris  ;  or  his  own  Piano-forte  Trio  in 
C  minor,  as  yet  unpublished,  and  untried.  We  chose  the  Trio  ; 
but  had  not  found  time  to  trace  out  half  its  beauties,  before  he 
returned,  to  advise  with  us  concerning  our  future  proceedings. 
"There  is  only  one  thing  for  you  to  do,"  he  said.  "Ferdinand  David 
will  be  here  to-morrow,  on  his  way  back  to  Leipzig,  from  the 
Lower  Ehine  Festival,  where  he  has  been  playing.  I  will  ask  him 
to  let  you  travel  with  him.  He  will  introduce  you  to  all  the 
people  you  will  care  to  know.  Enter  yourself  immediately  at  the 
Conservatorium  ;  and  get  into  training  as  soon  as  you  possibly  can. 
My  own  plans  are  so  undecided  that  I  should  be  able  to  do  nothing 
for  you,  here  ;  but  I  am  almost  certain  to  return  to  Leipzig,  before 
the  end  of  the  year,  and  I  shall  then  hope  to  see  a  great  deal  of 
you." 

*  '  I  am  an  eagle.' 


A.D.  1845.]    The  First  Idea  of''  Elijah' 


359 


He  was  now  busily  engaged  upon  his  long-antici- 
pated Oratorio,  Elijah,  intended  for  performance  at 
the  Birmingham  Festival,  in  the  following  year. 
But  this  did  not  prevent  him,  either  from  fulfilling 
his  duties  as  a  Professor  at  the  Conservatorium,'  or 

'  David  arrived,  late  that  night ;  and,  on  the  next  evening, 
Mendelssohn  gave  a  delightful  little  party,  at  which  the  two  friends, 
assisted  by  an  excellent  Violoncellist,  played  the  C  minor  Trio,  for 
the  first  time,  with  scarcely  less  effect  than  they  afterwards  pro- 
duced when  introducing  it  to  the  general  public  at  the  Gewand- 
haus.  It  was  our  last  pleasant  meeting  in  the  Bockenheimer 
Gasse.  David  had  arranged  to  start,  on  the  next  evening,  for 
Leipzig.  We  met  him,  at  the  office  of  the  Schnell  Post ;  and,  a 
few  moments  later,  Mendelssohn  joined  ns,  to  say,  as  he  was 
carefnl  to  express  it  in  mixed  German  and  English,  "  Kot  Lehen 
Sie  iDoliJ,  but,  Auf  iciederselinr  He  had  thought  of  everything 
that  could  help  to  make  the  dreary  diligence  journey  comfort- 
able, A  little  basket  of  early  fruit,  for  refreshment  during 
the  night ;  a  packet  of  choice  cigars  for  David  ;  and,  for  ourselves, 
a  quite  paternal  scolding  for  insufficient  defences  against  the  cold 
night-air.  There  were  many  last  words  to  be  said ;  but  so  much 
confusion  had  been  caused  by  the  hurried  arrival  of  a  party  of 
outside  passengers,  that,  at  the  moment  of  starting,  our  kind  friend, 
who  had  wisely  retired  from  the  scuffle,  was  missing.  The  con- 
ductor declared  that  he  could  wait  no  longer,  and  we  were  just 
giving  up  Mendelssohn  for  lost,  when  he  suddenly  reappeared, 
rushing  round  the  corner  of  the  street,  with  a  thick  woollen  scarf 
in  his  hand.  "Let  me  wrap  this  round  your  throat,"  he  gasped, 
quite  out  of  breath  with  his  run  ;  "  it  will  keep  you  warm,  in  the 
night ;  and,  when  you  get  to  Leipzig,  you  can  leave  it  in  the 
coach." 

'  We  need  scarcely  say  that  we  did  not  leave  it  in  the  coaeh." 
It  has  not  been  worn,  for  many  a  long  year :  but  it  lies  before  us, 
on  the  table,  as  we  write  its  history — the  dear  remembrance  of  a 
very  happy  time.'    Life  of  Mendelssohn.   (S.  Low  &  Co.  1884.) 

The  following  description  of  Mendelssohn's  method  of  teaching, 
at  the  Conservatorium,  is  extracted  from  the  author's  Life  of 
Mendelssohn 

*  Now  that  the  Royal  College  of  Music  is  attracting  so  much,  and 
such  well- merited  attention,  in  our  own  country,  our  readers  may 


360  Mademoiselle  Jenny  Lind.    [a.d.  1845. 


from  actively  superintending  the  Gewandhaus  Con- 
certs, at  one  of  which  Mademoiselle  Jenny  Lind 

perhaps  be  glad  to  know  something  of  the  method  of  teaching  pur- 
sued by  the  Founder  of  the  most  important  Music  School  in 
Germany,  on  the  authority  of  one  who  was  fortunate  enough  to 
participate  in  its  advantages.  AVe  shall  therefore  devote  the 
remainder  of  our  present  chapter  to  a  brief  sketch  of  his  mode  of 
proceeding  in  the  class-room,  based  on  our  own  personal  recol- 
lections, and  corroborated  by  the  contents  of  a  MS.  note- book  in 
which  we  were  careful  to  record  the  subjects  of  the  various  lessons, 
and  the  manner  of  their  discussion. 

'  The  members  of  the  Upper  Classes  for  the  study  of  the  Piano- 
forte and  Composition  met  regularly,  for  instruction,  on  Wednesday 
and  Saturday  afternoons,  each  lesson  lasting  two  hours.  The  first 
Pianoforte  piece  selected  for  study  was  Hummel's  Septett  in  D 
minor  :  and  we  well  remember  the  look  of  blank  dismay  depicted 
upon  more  than  one  excitable  countenance,  as  each  pupil  in  his  turn, 
after  playing  the  first  chord,  and  receiving  an  instantaneous  re- 
proof for  its  want  of  sonority,  was  invited  to  resign  his  seat  in 
favour  of  an  equally  unfortunate  successor.  Mendelssohn's  own 
manner  of  pla}dng  grand  chords,  both  in  forte  and  piano  passages, 
was  peculiarly  impressive ;  and  now,  when  all  present  had  tried, 
and  failed,  he  liimself  sat  do^vn  to  the  instrument,  and  explained 
the  causes  of  his  dissatisfaction  with  such  microscopic  minuteness, 
and,  clearness  of  expression,  that  the  lesson  was  simply  priceless. 
He  never  gave  a  learner  the  chance  of  mistaking  his  meaning: 
and  though  the  vehemence  with  which  he  sometimes  enforced  it 
made  timid  pupils  desperately  afraid  of  him,  he  was  so  perfectly 
just,  so  sternly  impartial  in  awarding  praise,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  blame  on  the  other,  that  consternation  soon  gave  place  to 
confidence,  and  confidence,  to  boundless  affection.  Carelessness 
infuriated  him.  Irreverence  for  the  Composer  he  could  never  for- 
give. "  Es  stelit  nicht  da ! "  (It  is  not  there !)  he  almost  shrieked,  one 
day,  to  a  pupil  who  had  added  a  note  to  a  certain  chord.  To  another, 
who  had  scrambled  through  a  difiicult  passage,  he  cried,  with 
withering  contempt,  "  So  sjpielen  die  Katzen !  "  (So  play  the  cats  !). 
But,  where  he  saw  an  earnest  desire  to  do  justice  to  the  work  in 
hand,  he  Avould  give  direction  after  direction  with  a  lucidity  which 
we  have  never  heard  equalled.  He  never  left  a  piece,  until  he  was 
satisfied  that  the  majority  of  the  class  understood  it  thoroughly. 
Hummel's  Septett  formed  the  chief  part  of  every  lesson,  until  the 
25th  of  February.  After  that,  it  was  relieved,  occasionally,  by 
one  of  Chopin's  Studies,  or  a  Fugue  from  the  Wohltem^emie 
Klavier.    But  it  was  not  until  the  21st  of  March  that  it  was  finally 


A.D.  1845.]    Made?7ioiselle  Jenny  Lind. 


361 


made  her  first  appearance  in  Leipzig,  on  the  4th  of 
December,  with  a  success  which  could   only  be 

set  aside,  to  make  room  for  Weber's  Conceii-Studc,  the  blaster's 
reading  of  wliich  was  superb.  He  would  make  each  pupil  play 
a  portion  of  this  gi'eat  work,  in  his  own  way ;  comment  upon  its 
delivery  with  the  most  perfect  frankness ;  and,  if  he  thought  the 
player  deserved  encouragement,  would  himself  supply  the  Orches- 
tral passages  on  a  second  Piano-forte.  But,  he  never  played  through 
the  piece  which  formed  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  in  a  connected 
lorm.  On  a  few  rare  occasions — we  can  only  remember  two,  or 
three — he  invited  the  whole  class  to  his  house ;  and,  on  one  of 
these  happy  days,  he  played  an  entire  Sonata — bat,  not  that  which 
the  members  of  the  class  were  studying.  And  the  reason  of  this 
reticence  was  obvious.  He  wished  his  pupils  to  understand  the 
principles  by  which  he  himseK  was  guided  in  his  interpretation 
of  the  works  of  the  Great  Masters ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  dis- 
courage servile  imitation  of  his  own  renderiug  of  any  individual 
Composition.  In  fact,  with  regard  to  special  forms  of  expression, 
one  of  his  most  frequently  reiterated  maxims  was,  "  If  you  want 
to  play  with  true  feeling,  you  must  listen  to  good  Singers.  You 
will  learn  far  more  from  them  than  from  any  players  you  are  likely 
to  meet  with." 

'  Upon  questions  of  simple  iedinique  he  rarely  touched,  except — 
as  m  the  case  of  our  first  precious  lesson  upon  the  chord  of  D 
minor — with  regaixi  to  the  rendering  of  certain  special  passages. 
We  were  expected  to  study  these  matters,  on  other  days  of  the 
week,  under  Herren  Plaidy,  or  Wenzel ;  Professors  of  high  repute, 
who  had  made  the  training  of  the  fingers,  and  wrist,  their  sxjeci- 
alife.  It  would  be  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  this 
arrangement,  which  provided  for  the  acquirement  of  a  pure  touch, 
and  facile  execution,  on  the  one  hand,  while,  on  the  other,  it  left 
Mendelssohn  free  to  direct  the  undivided  attention  of  his  pupils 
to  the  higher  branches  of  Art.  An  analogous  plan  was  adopted 
with  regard  to  the  Class  for  Composition.  The  members  of  this 
simultaneously  studied  the  technicalities  of  Harmony  under  Herr 
Fr.  Richter ;  those  of  Counterpoint,  and  Fugue,  under  Herr 
Hauptmann,  the  Kantor  of  the  Thomas-Schule  ;  and  those  of  Form, 
and  Instrumentation,  imder  Herr  Xiels  W.  Gade. 

'  Mendelssohn  himself  took  all  these  subjects  into  consideration, 
by  turns,  though  only  in  their  higher  aspect.  For  Counterpoint, 
he  employed  a  large  black-board,  with  eight  red  staves  drawn 
across  it.  On  one  of  these  staves  he  would  write  a  Canto  fenno  ; 
always  using  the  Soprano  Clef  for  the  Soprano  part.  Then,  oftering 
the  chalk  to  one  of  his  pupils,  he  would  bid  him  write  a  Counterpoint, 


362    MendelssohfCs  Method  of  Teaching,  [a.d.  1845. 


described  as  2,  furore.  The  Concerts  of  this  winter 
were,  indeed,  the  most  brilhant  that  had  ever  been 

al»ove,  or  below,  the  given  Subject.  This  done,  he  would  invite  the 
whole  class  to  criticise  the  tyro's  work  ;  discussing  its  merits 
with  the  closest  possible  attention  to  every  detail.  Having  cor- 
rected this  to  his  satisfaction,  or,  at  least,  made  the  best  of  it,  he 
would  pass  on  the  chalk  to  some  one  else — generally,  to  the  student 
who  had  been  most  severe  in  his  criticism — bidding  him  add  a 
third  part  to  the  two  already  written.  And  this  process  he  would 
carry  on,  until  the  whole  of  the  eight  staves  were  filled.  The 
difficulty  of  adding  a  sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  part,  to  an  exercise 
already  complete  in  three,  four,  or  five,  and  not  always  written 
with  the  freedom  of  an  experienced  Contrapuntist,  will  be  best 
understood  by  those  who  have  most  frequently  attempted  the 
process.  It  was  often  quite  impossible  to  supply  an  additional 
part,  or  even  an  additional  note ;  but  Mendelssohn  would  never 
sanction  the  employment  of  a  Eest,  as  a  means  of  escape  from  the 
gravest  difficulty,  until  every  available  resource  had  been  tried,  in 
vain. 

'  One  day,  when  it  fell  to  our  own  lot  to  write  the  eighth  part, 
a  certain  bar  presented  so  hopeless  a  dead-lock,  that  we  confessed 
ourselves  utterly  vanquished.  "  Cannot  you  find  a  note?"  asked 
Mendelssohn.  "  ^N'ot  one  that  could  be  made  to  fit  in,  without 
breaking  a  rule,"  said  we.  "  I  am  very  glad,"  said  he,  in  English, 
and  laughing  heartily,  "  for  I  could  not  find  one  myself."  It  was, 
in  fact,  a  case  of  inevitable  check-mate. 

'  We  never  knew,  beforehand,  what  form  the  lessons  in  this  class 
would  assume.  Sometimes  he  would  give  out  the  words  of  a  Song, 
to  be  set  to  music,  by  each  member  of  the  class,  before  its  next 
meeting ;  or  a  few  verses  of  a  Psalm,  to  be  set  in  the  form  of  a  Motet. 
"When  summoned,  towards  the  end  of  May,  1846,  to  direct  the 
Lower  Ehine  Festival,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  task  he  left  for 
completion  during  his  absence  was,  a  Quartett  for  stringed  instru- 
ments. When  any  trial  Compositions  of  this  kind  pleased  him, 
he  had  them  played  by  the  Orchestral  Class  ;  and  would  even 
play  the  Viola  himself,  or  ask  Herr  Gade  to  play  it,  in  the  Chamber- 
music  ;  striving,  by  every  means  of  encouragement  within  his 
power,  to  promote  a  wholesome  spirit  of  emulation  among  his 
pupils.  It  was  not  often  that  this  kindly  spirit  met  with  an  un- 
worthy response  ;  but  the  least  appearance  of  ingratitude  wounded 
him,  cruelly.  When  the  Quartetts  we  have  mentioned  were  sent 
to  him  for  examination,  he  found  one  of  them  headed  "  Chari- 
vari." At  the  next  meeting  of  the  class,  he  asked  for  an  explana- 
tion of  the  title.    "  The  time  was  so  short,"  stammered  the  com- 


A.D.  1 845. J  Mendelssohn's  MetJiod  of  Teaching,  363 

witnessed  at  tlie  Gewaiidliaus,  and  were  rendered 
memorable  bj  tbe  performance  of  many  of  Men- 
poser,  "  that  I  found  it  impossible  to  write  anything  worthy  of  a 
better  name.  I  called  it  '  Charivari,'  to  show  that  I  knew  it  was 
rubbish."  We  could  see  that  Mendelssohn  felt  deeply  hurt ;  but 
he  kept  his  temper  nobly.  "I  am  a  very  busy  man,"  he  said, 
"  and  am,  just  now,  overwhelmed  with  work.  Do  you  think  you 
were  justihed  in  expecting  me  to  waste  my  time  upon  a  piece 
which  you  yourself  knew  to  be  rubbish  ?  If  you  are  not  in 
earnest,  I  can  have  nothing  to  say  to  you."  Nevertheless,  he 
analysed  the  Quartett  with  quite  as  much  care  as  the  rest,  while 
the  culprit  stood  by,  as  white  as  a  sheet,  well  knowing  that 
not  a  member  of  the  class  would  speak  to  him,  for  many  a  long- 
day  to  come.  In  pleasant  contrast  to  this,  we  cannot  refrain 
from  giving  publicity  to  a  ver}''  different  story.  One  of  the  best 
Piano-forte  players  in  the  class  was  a  handsome  young  Pole, 
with  a  profusion  of  jet-black  hair,  which,  in  true  Polish  fashion, 
he  allowed  to  hang  half-way  down  his  back.  While  playing  the 
brilliant  passages  which  form  the  climax  of  the  Concert  Stuck,  the 
good  fellow  shook  his  head,  one  day,  in  such  sort  as  to  throw"  his 
rich  locks  over  his  shoulder,  in  a  tempest  of  kolilpechrahenschwarze 
Haare.^''  "You  must  have  your  hair  cut,"  said  Mendelssohn,  in 
German,  with  a  merry  laugh.  The  Pole  was  very  proud  of  his 
cheveJiire  ;  but,  at  the  next  meeting,  his  hair  was  the  shortest  in 
the  class — and  there  was  not  a  student  there  present  who  would 
not  gladly  have  had  his  head  shaved,  could  he  thereby  have  pur- 
chased the  smile  with  which  the  happy  student  was  rewarded  for 
his  devotion. 

'  More  than  once,  the  lesson  was  devoted  to  extemporisation  upon 
given  Subjects ;  during  the  course  of  which  ]Mendelssohn  would 
sit  beside  the  improvisatore,  and,  without  interrupting  the  per- 
former, suggest,  from  time  to  time,  certain  modes  of  treatment 
which  occurred  to  him  at  the  moment.    He  once  gave  the  writer 


the  following  Theme, 


and  afterwards  extempo- 


rised upon  it,  himself ;  using  the  three  C's  as  the  initial  notes  of  an 
enchanting  little  melody,  which  he  worked  up  into  a  species  of  Lied 
ohne  Worte.  On  other  occasions,  he  would  take  two  well-defined 
motivi,  and  work  them  up  into  a  model  of  the  Sonata-form,  in 
order  to  show  how  much  might  be  accomplished,  by  very  simple 
means.  He  insisted  strongly  upon  the  importance  of  "  a  natural 
and  carefully- arranged  system  of  modulation;  and  would  fre- 
quently call  upon  one  pupil  after  another  to  pass  from  a  given 


3^4  Athalie,  [a.d.  1845. 

delssolin's  most  important  works.  For  one  of  them, 
Herr  Niels  W.  Gade  composed  his  first  Cantata, 
Comala,  At  another,  Herr  Joachim,  then  fourteen 
years  old,  made  his  first  public  appearance  as  a 
composer,  in  a  Rondo  for  the  Violin,  with  Orchestral 
Accompaniments,  played  by  himself.  And,  for  ten 
others,  Madame  Sainton  Dolby  was  engaged  as  the 
principal  vocalist.  During  the  entire  season,  Men- 
delssohn was  the  life  and  soul  of  the  performances ; 
yet,  with  Elijah  still  unfinished,  he  found  time  to 
finish  his  Music  to  (Edijpus  Coloneus,  and  that  to 
Racine's  Athalie,  and  to  produce  the  first,  at  Pots- 
dam, and  the  second,  at  Charlottenburg,  by  command 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  before  the  close  of  the  year. 
But,  those  who  knew  and  loved  him  best  saw, 
clearly  enough,  that  he  was  working  far  beyond  his 
strength ;  and,  in  truth,  his  duties  at  Berlin,  the 
conscientious  fulfilment  of  which  was  rendered 
almost  impossible,  by  the  meanness  of  intriguing 
Courtiers,  and  the  blundering  fatuity  of  jealous  and 
unsympathizing  officials,  were  slowly,  but  surely, 
preparing  the  premature  grave  in  which  he  was 
destined  so  soon  to  find  the  rest,  denied  to  him,  on 

key  to  some  exceedingly  remote  one,  with  the  least  possible  amount 
of  apparent  effort.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  writer  had  failed 
to  satisfy  him,  in  an  attempt  of  this  kind,  he  said,  in  English, 
"  I  call  that  Modulation  very  ungentlemanlike." 

'  "WHien  the  lesson  went  well,  it  was  easy  to  see  that  he  thoroughly 
enjoyed  it.  But  the  work  was  too  hard  for  him,  in  addition  to 
his  other  laborious  duties ;  and  the  acceptance,  by  Moscheles,  of 
a  Piano-forte  Professorship  at  the  Conservatorium,  in  1846,  gave 
him  unmixed  satisfaction.' 


A .  D .  1846.]  First  Performance  of  Elijah .  365 

earth,  by  the  intensity  of  his  devotion  to  the  Art  he 
so  passionately  loved.  King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  was 
really  anxious  to  do  him  honour,  and  quite  ready  to 
support  him  in  his  efforts  for  the  advancement  of 
Art ;  but,  the  power  placed,  by  Court  etiquette,  in 
incompetent  hands,  neutralized  all  his  efforts,  and 
ruined  everything. 

When  Mendelssohn  was  most  discouraged,  a  visit 
to  England  never  failed  to  raise  his  fainting  spirits. 
He  arrived  in  London,  for  the  ninth  time,  on  the 
18th  of  August,  1846  ;  and,  on  the  26th,  conducted 
Elijah,  with  triumphant  success,  at  the  Birmingham 
Festival.     Upon  the  enthusiasm  with  which  tliis 
great  work  was  received  it  is  needless  to  enlarge. 
Unhappily,  the  excitement  attendant  upon  its  pro- 
duction, added  to  the  effect  of  the  ceaseless  worries 
at  Berlin,  seriously  impaired  Mendelssohn's  health. 
On  his  tenth  and  last  visit  to  England,  in  1847,  he 
conducted  four  performances  of  Elijah  at  Exeter 
Hall,  one,  at  Manchester,  and  one,  at  Birmingham. 
As  before,  he  was  received,  by  the  Queen,  and  the 
Prince  Consort,  with  a  welcome  which — if  one  might 
dare  to  use  the  word — bordered  almost  upon  affec- 
tion;   and  it  was  at  the  second  performance  at 
Exeter  Hall,  on  April  23rd,  that  the  Prince  Consort 
wrote,  in  his  'Book  of  Words,'  the  memorable 
note,    in   which    he   compared    Mendelssohn  to 
another  Elijah,  warring  against  Baal-worship  in  Art.^ 
^  See  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,  vol.  i.  p.  489. 


366         Mendelssohn' s  Failing  Health,  [a.d.  1846. 

But,  all  this  labour  and  excitement  was  beyond 
the   Maestro's   strength ;    and   a   terrible  shock 


Fig.  47. 

FELIX  MENDELSSOHN-JJARTHOLDT. 

awaited  him  on  his  return  to  Frankfort.    His  sister, 
Fanny ,^  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached,  had  died 
^  Married,  in  1829,  to  the  well-known  Painter,  Wilhelm  Hensel. 


A.D.  1847.]  TJie  Death  of  Mendelssohn.  367 

suddenly,  a  few  days  before  lie  reached  horae ;  and, 
on  hearing  the  sad  news,  he  fell  to  the  ground,  in- 
sensible. From  the  effect  of  this  great  sorrow  he 
never  fully  recovered.  In  the  beginning  of  June, 
he  was  able  to  travel  to  Interlaken ;  and,  in  Sep- 
tember, he  returned  to  Leipzig,  employing  himself 
on  some  fragments  of  a  new  Oratorio,  to  be  called 
Ghristus,  and  a  projected  Opera,  Loreley,  But  he 
lived  in  the  strictest  privacy.  His  health  was  com- 
pletely broken.  The  light  of  his  life  seemed  to 
have  died  out.  On  the  4th  of  JN'ovember,  1847,  he 
passed  away ;  and,  on  the  8th,  he  was  laid  to  rest, 
in  the  Alte  Dreifaltigkeitskirchof,  at  Berlin. 

No  really  satisfactory  portrait  of  Mendelssohn 
was  ever  painted;  in  fact,  the  wonderful  mobility  of 
his  features  seems  to  have  defied  the  artist's  power. 
The  best  is  that  painted  by  Magnus,  in  1844,  and 
now  in  the  possession  of  Madame  Lind-Groldschmidt. 

Egbert  Schumann  was  born,  at  Zwickau,  June  8, 
1810.  His  talent  for  Music  declared  itself  at  a  yqyj 
early  age  :  but  his  mother's  prejudices  condemned 
him  to  study  for  the  Law ;  and  it  was  not  until  the 
year  1830,  that  he  was  able  to  study  Music  in 
earnest.  He  then  put  himself  under  the  celebrated 
Maestro,  Friedrich  Wieck,  who  would  probably 
have  made  him  a  splendid  Pianist,  had  he  not  de- 
vised a  plan  of  his  own  for  strengthening  the  third 


368  Neue  Zeitschrift  fur  Mztsik.  [a.d.  1834. 

finger,^  the  want  of  independence  in  which  has 
been  the  heie  noire  of  every  virtuoso  on  record. 
This  plan — the  exact  details  of  which  have  never 
transpired' — he  practised,  in  secret,  with  so  much 
misguided  zeal,  that  his  right  hand  was  permanently 
crippled;  and  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  his 
prospects  as  a  performer,  and  devote  himself  to 
studies  in  Composition,  under  the  guidance  of 
Heinrich  Dorn,  varied  by  essays  in  musical  criticism, 
contributed,  first,  to  the  Allgemeine  MusikaliseJie 
Zeitung,  and  afterwards  to  a  periodical  called  the 
Neue  Zeitschrift  fur  Musik,  which  he  himself  set  on 
foot,  in  1834.  In  both  branches  of  Art  he  was 
tremendously  in  earnest :  and,  in  both,  he  con- 
scientiously followed  the  instincts  of  his  own  natural 
genius,  disdaining  to  accept  a  hint  from  anyone ; 
yet  never  failing  to  admit  that  which  was  great  or 
promising  in  others. 

On  September  12,  1840,  Schumann  married  Herr 
Wieck's  talented  daughter,  now  so  well  known  as 
Madame  Clara  Schumann ;  and  to  this  lady — one  of 
the  greatest  and  most  perfect  Pianistes  the  world 
has  ever  produced — we  owe  that  poetical  and  ever- 
satisfying  interpretation  of  his  works  which  has 
tended,  more  than  any  other  form  of  recommenda- 
tion, to  convince  an  unbelieving  world  of  their  true 

^  i.e.  the  finger  whicli  we,  in  England,  call  the  third,  but  which, 
in  Germany,  and  France,  is  called  the  fourth. 


A.D.  1848.] 


Genoveva. 


369 


value,  and  to  rescue  them  from  the  fangs  of  a  band 
of  adverse  critics,  who  persecuted  him  more  savagely 
and  more  unjustly,  than  any  other  great  man  of 
genius — save  only  Richard  Wagner — has  ever  been 
persecuted,  before  or  since. 

At  this  period,  Schumann  was  composing  vigor- 
ously. His  First  Symjphony ,  in  B^,  was  finished  in 
1841 ;  his  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  in  1843 — the  year 
of  his  nomination,  by  Mendelssohn,  as  Professor  of 
Composition  in  the  newly-founded  Conservatorium 
der  Musik,  at  Leipzig;^  and  his  first,  and  only 
Opera,  Genoveva,  and  the  Music  to  Lord  Byron's 
Manfred,  in  1848.  The  Scenes  from  Goethe's  Faust, 
though  begun  in  1844,  were  not  completed  until  1853. 

Many  of  the  most  important  and  productive  years  of 
Schumann's  life  were  spent  in  Leipzig,  and  Dresden ; 
and,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  his  frequent  periods 
of  residence  in  the  first-named  town,  he  was  thrown 
very  much  into  the  society  of  Mendelssohn,  with 
whom  he  was  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship,  and 
who  entertained  a  sincere  admiration  for  his  genius.^ 

-  See  p.  357. 

^  Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  that  Mendelssohn  and 
Schumann  were  on  less  friendly  terms  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected between  two  such  earnest  and  devoted  lovers  of  Art.  The 
writer  is  able  to  correct  this  mis-statement,  on  his  own  personal 
responsibility.  Schumann  was  a  constant  guest  at  Mendelssohn's 
house :  and  the  intercourse  between  the  two  friends  was  marked 
by  the  most  perfect  cordiality. 

B  b 


370  Schumann  at  Dusseldorf.      [a.d.  1850. 

Not  long  after  Mendelssohn's  death,  in  1847,  he 
was  anxious  to  obtain  the  post  of  Conductor  at 
the  Gewandhaus  Concerts.    He  did  not  secure  this 


Fig.  48. 
EGBERT  SCHUMANN. 

coveted  position :  but,  in  1850,  he  accepted  the 
appointment,  once  held  by  Mendelssohn,  of  Musical 
Director  at  Diisseldorf ;  and  here  he  remained  until 


[ A .  D .  1856.]     The  Death  of  Schuman n.  371 

1853,  when  it  became  only  too  evident  that  the 
close  of  his  artistic  career  was  at  hand.  Very  soon 
afterwards,  a  disease  of  the  brain,  which  had  already 
made  terrible  inroads  upon  his  health,  entered  upon 
a  still  more  alarming  phase;  and,  on  July  29th, 
1856,  he  died,  at  Endenich,  near  Bonn,  where,  two 
days  afterwards,  his  remains  were  laid  to  rest. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  the  list 
of  Schumann's  masterpieces  includes,  four /Symp/lo?^^es; 
a  Piano-forte  Concerto;  the  Overtures  to  Julius  Cceso^r, 
Hermann  und  Dorothea,  Die  Braut  von  Messina,  and  a 
Concert  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale;  the  Cantatas, 
Der  Rose  Pilgerfahrt,  Der  Konigssohn,  and  Vom 
Pagen  und  der  Konigstochter  ;  a  numerous  collection 
of  Songs,  of  great  beauty;  and  many  Quartetts, 
Trios,  important  suites  of  Piano-forte  Pieces,  and 
other  miscellaneous  works  too  numerous  to  mention. 

Schumann's  literary  works — consisting,  for  the 
most  part,  of  articles  contributed  to  the  Allgemeine 
Musikalische  Zeitung,  and  Neue  Zeitschrift  fur 
Musih, — are  also  very  numerous,  and  important, 
Many  of  them  ostensibly  emanated  from  an  imaginary 
brotherhood,  called  the  Davidshund,  the  members  of 
which  were  living  Musicians,  and  Schumann's  most 
intimate  friends,  though  the  society  itself  had  no 
veritable  existence. 


Robert  Schumann  represented  German  Music  in 
B  b  2 


372  The  Birth  of  Cimarosa.       [a.d.  1749. 

the  last  stage  but  one  of  its  progress  towards  its 
present  state  of  development;  and,  with  him  we 
must,  for  a  time,  take  leave  of  its  history,  while  we 
consider  that  of  two  Masters  who  contributed  greatly 
to  the  advance  of  Art,  in  Italy,  and  in  France. 

DoMENico  Cimarosa  was  born,  at  or  near  Naples, 
about  the  year  1749  ;  and  is  said  to  have  been  edu- 
cated, under  Sacchini,  Piccini,  and  Fenaroli,  at  the 
Conservatorio  di  S.  Maria  di  Loreto.^  Since  the  last 
two  only  of  his  delightful  Operas  were  begun  after 
the  opening  of  the  19th  century,  strict  chronology 
would  have  led  us  to  treat  of  his  life-work  in  our 
Fourth  Book ;  but,  the  influence  of  his  genius  upon 
modern  Italian  Opera  was  so  great,  and  so  long- 
continued,  that  we  have  preferred  to  class  him  with 
the  Composers  of  the  century  in  which  he  died, 
rather  than  with  those  of  an  earlier  date. 

His  first  Opera,  Le  SiravaganzedelConte^^ipYodvLced, 
at  Naples,  in  1772,  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
at  once  revealed  the  young  Composer's  power,  which 
was  even  more  clearly  displayed  in  Italicma  in 
Londra,  composed  at  Eome,  in  1774.  After  this, 
he  wrote  alternately,  for  Rome,  and  Naples,  until 
1780,  producing  La  finta  Parigina,  [1774],  Lafinta 

*  The  date  of  Cimarosa's  birth  is  very  Tincertaiii,  and  much 
doubt  exists  as  to  the  history  of  his  early  life. 

^  In  another  account,  the  first  opera  is  called  La  Baronessa 
Stramba. 


A.D.  1780.]        II  Convito  di  Pietra.  373 

Frascatina,  [1774],  Ilfanatico  per  gli  antichi,  [1775], 
II  Pittor  Parigino,  [1776],  I  due  Baroni,  [1776],  I 
finti  Nobili,  [1777],  L'  Aimida  immaginaria,  [1778], 
Gli  Amanti  comici,  [1778],  II  ritorno  di  Don  Galan- 
drinOy  [1779],  Oajo  Mario,  one  of  his  masterpieces, 
[1779],  and  II  Mercato  di  Malmantile,  [1779]. 

The  year  1780  was  a  critical  one,  in  Cimarosa's 
career.  By  that  time,  he  had  become  the  acknow- 
ledged rival  of  Paisiello,  whose  popularity  was  then 
at  its  climax ;  and,  during  the  seven  years  which 
followed,  the  two  Composers  held  about  an  equal 
place  in  public  estimation.  But,  their  merits  were 
of  a  very  different  order.  Cimarosa's  flow  of  Melody 
was  already  more  free,  more  genial,  and  infinitely 
less  restrained  than  Paisiello's ;  and  the  Concerted 
Movements  of  the  latter  bear  no  comparison  with 
those  of  his  younger  rival. 

Cimarosa's  most  successful  Operas,  during  this 
period,  were.  La  Ballerina  amante,  and  II  Convito  di 
Pietra,^  both  produced,  at  Venice,  in  1780,  and  the 
latter,  with  such  success,  that  the  Composer  was 
carried  home  in  triumph,  after  the  first  performance, 
by  torchlight ;  Artaserse,  [1785],  I  due  sup'posti 
Conti,  [1786],  Le  trains  deliose,  [1787],  L'  Olim- 
piade,  [1787],  II  Valdomiro,  [1787],  and  nearly 
twenty  others. 

^  The  Marble  Guest,  a  lighter  rendering  of  the  Legend  so 
splendidly  treated  by  Mozart,  in  II  Don  Giovanni. 


374  II  Matrimofiio  segreto.      [a.d.  1792. 

By  invitation  of  tlie  Empress  Catherine  II.,  Cima- 
rosa  visited  S.  Petersburg,  in  1787,  and  remained 
there,  until  1791,  when  his  health  began  to  give  way. 
Among  the  Operas  written  for  the  Russian  Court 
were  11  Credido,  II  Marito  disperato,  L'  Impresario 
in  augustie,  II  Fanatico  hurlato,  La  Vergine  del 
Sole,  La  Felicita  inaspettata,  La  Cleopatra,  L'  Atene 
edificata,  and  La  Villanella  ricoiiosciuta,  all  produced 
between  1787  and  1790.  But,  his  greatest  triumph 
was  yet  to  come. 

Soon  after  his  return  to  Italy,  the  Emperor, 
Leopold  II.,  invited  him  to  Vienna,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded Salieri,  as  Hofkapellmeister.  He  arrived  at 
the  Austrian  Court,  in  1792  ;  and,  in  that  year,  pro- 
duced his  greatest,  and  best-known  work,  II  Matri- 
monio  segreto,  which  excited  such  intense  admiration, 
that,  after  the  first  performance,  the  Emperor  invited 
the  whole  company  to  supper,  and  then  sent  them 
back  to  the  Stage,  to  repeat  the  entire  Opera.  This 
imperishable  work  was  quickly  followed  by  La 
calamita  de^  cicori,  and  L'  Amor  rende  sagace  :  but,  the 
Emperor's  death  put  an  end  to  Cimarosa's  engage- 
ment;  and,  in  1793,  he  returned  to  Naples,  leaving 
Salieri  in  possession  of  his  old  appointment. 

Cimarosa  was  received,  in  Naples,  with  every 
mark  of  distinction.  King  Ferdinand  appointed 
him  Maestro  di  Gappella  and  instructor  to  the  young 
Princesses.   BMatrimonio  segreto  was  performed  57 


A.D.  1796.]       Gil  Orazij  e  Ciiriazij .  375 

times  running ;  and  quite  eclipsed  the  fame  of 
all  his  former  productions.  Nevertheless,  he  followed 
it  up  with  a  long  succession  of  new  works,  none  of 
which  failed  to  make  their  mark.  Among  these 
were  Le  astuzie  feminile,  I  Trad  arnanti,  Penelope, 
L'  Impegno  superato,  I  nemici  generosi,  Seiniraviide, 
GU  Orazij  e  Curiazlj,  Achille,  II  Matrimonio  per 
raggiro,  11  Matrimonio  per  susurro,  and  L'  Apprensivo 
raggirato. 

Up  to  this  time,  Cimarosa's  life  had  been  a  pre- 
eminently successful  one;  but,  the  outbreak  of  the 
French.  Revolution  exercised  a  fatal  power  over  his 
destiny.  So  deeply  infected  was  he  with  the  doc- 
trines of  the  '  terrorists,'  that,  when  the  French 
republican  army  entered  the  land  of  his  birth,  in 
1799,  he  ojDenly  testified  his  joy  at  their  ephemeral 
success,  and  espoused  their  cause  so  enthusiastically, 
that,  after  their  departure,  he  was  imprisoned,  and 
condemned  to  death.  King  Ferdinand,  who  had 
treated  him  so  generously,  and  so  truly  admired  hds 
genius,  spared  his  life,  but  refused  to  let  him  remain 
in  Xaples ;  he  therefore  removed  to  Venice,  where, 
in  1800,  he  produced  X'  Luprudente  fortunato,  and, 
in  1801,  began  the  composition  of  Artemisia,  the 
First  Act  only  of  which  he  lived  to  finish.  He  died, 
at  Venice,  Jan.  11,  1801 :  and,  immediately,  a  hun- 
dred absurd  reports  were  circulated  with  regard  to 
his  death,  which  one  party  attributed  to  poison,  ad- 


37^  The  Death  of  Cimarosa.     [a.d.  i8oi. 

ministered,  not  at  Venice,  but  at  Padua,  and  another, 
to  ill-usage  in  a  Neapolitan  prison ;  while  a  third, 
entirely  ignoring  his  revolutionary  experiences,  as- 
serted that  his  health  had  broken  down,  from  over- 
work ;  and  a  fourth,  that  he  had  been  strangled,  by 
order  of  the  Neapolitan  Government. 

Several  Composers  undertook  to  finish  Artemisia  ; 
but,  each  time  a  performance  was  attempted,  the 
public  refused  to  listen  to  anything  but  the  First  Act 
— which  was  entirely  the  work  of  Cimarosa.  This, 
like  Gli  Orazij  e  Curiazij,  8  emir  amide,  Artaserse,  and 
Achille,  was  an  Opera  seria ;  but,  great  as  these 
works  are,  Cimarosa  was  still  greater  in  the  genuine 
Opera  huff  a,  of  which  II  Matrimonio  segreto  is  one  of 
the  most  perfect  examples  in  existence — so  perfect  an 
example,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  class  it  with 
any  others,  save  oaly  the  masterpieces  of  Mozart, 
and  Rossini's  11  Barhiere.  Compared  with  Mozart, 
Cimarosa  certainly  lacks  breadth,  in  his  Finales,  and 
richness,  in  his  Instrumentation.  With  regard  to  this, 
Gretry  is  reported  to  have  said,  '  Cimarosa  puts  the 
Statue  on  the  Stage,  and  the  Pedestal  in  the 
Orchestra :  Mozart  puts  the  Pedestal  on  the  Stage, 
and  the  Statue  in  the  Orchestra.'  This  is  not 
true;  for  Mozart's  accompaniments  are  never  re- 
dundant. On  the  other  hand,  Cimarosa's,  though 
less  full  than  those  of  Mozart,  are  always  strong 
enough  to  support  the  Voice,  abound  in  variety  of 


A.D.  1785.]      II Sagrifizio  d Abramo,  377 

effect,  and  are  unsurpassed  in  their  delicacy  and 
refinement.  In  the  symmetry  of  his  forms,  Cimarosa 
was  second  to  no  one ;  nor  has  the  genial  spright- 
liness  of  his  Melodies  ever  been  exceeded.  But,  in 
depth  of  expression,  he  was  as  much  inferior  to 
Mozart  as  in  his  want  of  breadth.  This  is  no  less 
apparent  in  his  Oratorios — II  Sag^ifizio  Abramo, 
L'  Assalone,  La  Giuditta,  and  others — than  in  his 
serious  Operas.  Yet,  the  probability  is,  that,  had 
he  cultivated  a  deeper  vein  of  thought,  his  style 
would  have  sufi*ered  very  much,  in  consequence.  As 
it  is,  it  is  perfect.  It  has  served  as  a  model  to  all 
Composers  of  true  Italian  Opera,  from  his  day,  to 
our  own ;  and  it  may  be  safely  said  that  those 
who  have  studied  it  most  deeply,  have  won  the 
highest  honours  in  their  own  special  phase  of 
Italian  Art. 

LuiGi  Caelo  Zanobi  Salvadore  Maria  Cheeubini, 
though  a  native  of  Italy,  spent  so  many  of  the  most 
active  years  of  his  life  in  France,  and  exercised  so 
potent  an  influence  upon  French  Music,  that — as 
with  Handel — it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  him, 
except  in  connection  with  the  country  of  his 
adoption. 

He  was  born,  at  Florence,  Sept.  14,  1760;  and, 
after  receiving  instruction  from  his  father,  and  some 
other  Florentine  professors,  perfected  his  musical 


3/8  Dernophon.  [a.d.  1788. 

education  under  Giuseppe  Sarti,  [1729 — 1802],  one 
of  the  most  accomplislied  Musicians  of  the  age,  and 
a  prolific  Composer,  both  of  Sacred  and  Dramatic 
Music,  though  neither  his  Masses,  nor  his  numerous 
Operas,  have  left  an  enduring  impression  upon  Art. 
For  many  of  these  Operas,  Cherubini,  in  his  youth, 
was  permitted  to  write  Airs  for  the  subordinate 
characters  :  but,  these  did  not  appear  under  his  own 
name,  nor  did  he  include  them  in  the  catalogue  of 
his  works,  though  Mr.  Bellasis  has  rescued  the  names 
of  many  of  them  from  oblivion. 

Cherubini' s  first  recorded  work  was  a  Mass,  with 
Orchestral  Accompaniments,  dated  1773.  His  first 
Opera,  II  Quinto  Fabio,  was  performed,  at  Alessan- 
dria, in  1780.  This  was  followed  by  Armida,  Adriano, 
and  II  Messenzio,  all  produced  in  1782;  a  second 
Quinto  Fahio,  in  1783  ;  Lo  sjposo  di  tre,  in  the  same 
year ;  and  Idalide,  and  U  Alessandro,  in  1784.  In 
the  autumn  of  1784,  Cherubini  visited  London, 
where  he  produced  Lafinta  Principessa,  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  in  1785,  and  11  Giulio  Sabino^  in  1786.  He 
next  visited  Paris,  where  he  was  received,  with  great 
honour,  by  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  and  where,  not 
long  afterwards,  he  quietly  settled,  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  In  1788,  he  produced  his  first  French 
Opera,  Bemojphon,  at  the  Academic ;  and  wrote  his 
last  dramatic  work  for  Italy,  Ijigenia.  These  Operas 
were  well  written ;  but  nothing  more.    Cherubini' s 


A.D.  1 79 1.]  Lodoiska.  379 

true  greatness,  as  an  independent  thinker,  first 
asserted  itself  in  LodoisJca,  produced,  at  the  Theatre 
Fejdeau,  in  1791,  and  founded  upon  a  plot  not 
unhke  that  of  Fidelio.  It  is  true,  the  strongly- 
marked  individuality  of  the  style  excited  much 
opposition  :  but  the  Composer's  genius  had  revealed 
itself,  and  could  no  longer  he  restrained. 

The  horrors  of  1793  drove  Cherubini  to  the 
country-house  of  a  friend,  near  Rouen,  where  he 
composed  EUse,  the  action  of  which  takes  place  in 
the  Monastery  of  Mont  Saint  Bernard.  The  work 
was  produced,  at  the  Theatre  Feydeau,  in  1794-.  In 
the  following  year,  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique — 
first  planned,  in  1775,  and  opened  in  1784,  under 
the  title  of  L'Ecole  Eoyale  de  Chant — was  re- 
organised, under  its  present  well-known  name.  The 
scheme  was  completed,  in  1795,  and  the  classes  first 
met,  in  the  autumn  of  1796.  Sarrette  was  appointed 
President ;  and  Cherubini,  joint  Inspecteur  des 
Etudes,  in  company  with  Mehul,  Gretry,  Gossec, 
and  Lesueur ;  and  Professor  of  Counterpoint,  in 
conjunction  with  Mehul,  and  Gossec. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  now  famous  Com- 
poser openly  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  republicans  ; 
and  he  who  had  been  so  honourably  and  so  gene- 
rously welcomed  by  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  in 
1788,  is  said  to  have  presided,  in  1796,  at  a  Concert 
held  to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of 


38o 


Medde, 


[a.d.  1797. 


King  Louis  XVI.^  Eight  compositions,  written  at 
the  command  of  his  new  masters,  are  mentioned  in 
his  catalogue.  It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that, 
at  the  outset,  he  made  some  attempt  at  resistance ; 
and,  that  he  was  seriously  annoyed  at  his  compulsory 
enrolment  in  the  National  Guard.  Moreover,  in 
1795,  he  married  Madlle.  Cecile  Tourette,  the 
daughter  of  a  Lady-in-waiting  to  the  Princesses 
Adelaide  and  Victoria  ;  a  lady  of  undoubted  loyalty, 
who  bore  him  a  son,  and  two  daughters. 

Oherubini's  next  Opera  was  Medee,  produced,  at 
the  Theatre  Feydeau,  in  1797.  This  was  followed 
by  U Hotellerie  portugaise,  [1798],  and  La  Punition, 
[1799].  But  a  greater  work  than  all  these  was  in 
preparation,  though  not  destined  to  appear  in  the 
18th  century. 

This  was,  Les  deux  Journees — in  German,  Ber 
Wassertrdger — first  performed,  at  the  Theatre  Fey- 
deau, Jan.  16, 1800.  This  is,  beyond  all  comparison, 
the  finest  and  most  captivating  Opera  comique  that  the 
French  School  has  ever  produced :  a  work  well  worthy 
to  take  rank  with  the  three  greatest  examples  of  the 
German  Singspiel,  Die  Zauberflote,  Fidelio,  and  Der 
Freischutz.  Though  an  Opera  comique,  by  virtue  of 
its  spoken  Dialogue,  its  subject  is  very  serious 
indeed,  and  keeps  the  audience  in  an  agony  of 
suspense  concerning  the  hair-breadth  escapes  of  a 
'  Moniteur,  Jan.  26,  1796. 


A.D.  1800.]         Les  detlx  Journies.  381 

certain  Count  Armand,  who,  condemned  to  death,  in 
the  days  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  is  enabled  to  leave 
Paris,  by  aid  of  a  Savoyard,  whom  he  has  be- 
friended in  happier  times,  and  who  saves  him  by 
concealing  him  in  his  water-cart.  The  Finales,  and 
other  Concerted  Movements,  in  this  imperishable 
Opera,  are  certainly  finer,  and  more  fully  developed, 
than  those  in  Medee,  But,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
compare  the  two  works — both  perfect,  in  their  own 
way.  Medee,  a  gloomy  Tragedy,  in  which  the  horror 
of  the  plot  is  enhanced  a  thousand  times,  by  the 
severity  of  the  Music  :  Les  deux  Joimiees,  an  exciting 
Drama,  harrowing  the  hearer's  feelings,  at  every 
critical  situatiou,  yet  genial,  to  the  last  degree,  from 
the  first  note  of  the  Introduction,  to  the  last  of  the 
happy  denouement. 

Cherubini  never  surpassed  the  beauty  of  these 
two  great  works,  though  he  wrote  six  more  Operas 
after  them  :  Anacreon,  in  1803,  FanisJca,  [1806], 
Pimmalione,  [1809],  Le  Crescendo,  [1810],  Les  Aben- 
cerrages,  [1813],  SiTidAliBaba,  (founded  on  an  older 
work,  called  KourTcourgi),  [1 833] .  Of  these,  the  first, 
fifth,  and  last,  are  Grand  Operas,  written  for  the 
Academic.  The  long  interval  between  the  two  last 
was  filled  with  compositions  of  a  different  kind. 

In  1802,  Cherubini  was  appointed  Maitre  de 
Chapelle  at  the  Tuileries  ;  but  his  position  was  a 
very  unpleasant  one.    Buonaparte  could  not  endure 


382        Cherubini's  Sacred  Mitsic.  [a. d.  1 778-1836. 

him ;  and  he  made  no  secret  of  his  own  dislike  to  a 
man  who  constantly  made  disparaging  remarks  upon 
his  finest  compositions.  Notwithstanding  his  ap- 
pointment, he  does  not  seem  to  have  composed  any 
Sacred  Music  at  all,  until,  in  1806,  he  finished  his 
stupendous  Gredo,  for  eight  voices,  begun  in  1778  ; 
one  of  the  most  learned  contrapuntal  triumphs  on 
record.^  In  1808,  he  paid  a  long  visit  to  the  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Chimay;  and,  at  the  Castle  of 
Chimay,  in  Belgium,  composed  his  Mass, ^  in  F,  for 
three  voices ;  and,  in  1811,  he  wrote  his  grand  Mass 
in  D  Minor  :  but,  the  epoch  of  his  best  Sacred 
Music  dates  from  his  appointment  as  Mattre  de 
Chapelle,  by  King  Louis  XVIII.,  in  1816,  after  which 
he  devoted  himself  with  ardour  to  this  phase  of  Art. 
He  wrote,  in  all,  eleven  Masses,  including  two  Coro- 
nation Masses,  in  Gr,  and  A,  for  Louis  XYIIL,  and 
Charles  X. ;  two  Requiems,  in  C  Minor,  and  D  Minor; 
a  multitude  of  detached  Movements,  for  the  Chapelle 
E-oyale,  and  innumerable  smaller  pieces. 

In  1822,  Cherubini  was  appointed  Director  of  the 
Conservatoire,  which  flourished,  as  it  has  never  done 
before  or  since,  under  his  strict  but  judicious  rule, 
against  which  no  one  but  Hector  Berlioz  was  ever 

known  openly  to  rebel.    It  was  for  the  pupils  of  the 

♦ 

*  The  last  Movement  of  this — the  wonderful  Et  vitam  venturi 
SLBCuli.  Amen — forms  one  of  the  examples  appended  to  Cherubini's 
Cours  de  Contre-pomt  et  de  Fugue.    Paris,  1835. 


A.D.  1835.]  Cours  de  Contre-point  et  de  Fugue,  383 

Conservatoire  tliat  lie  wrote,  in  1835,  his  priceless 
Gouts  de  Gontre-jooint  et  de  Fugue — a  work  without  the 
study  of  which  no  young  musician's  education  can 
be  considered  complete.  The  treatise  is  founded, 
in  its  main  lines,  on  the  Gradus  of  Fux  ;  but  the 
examples  are  conformed  to  the  modern  Major  and 
Minor  Scales,  in  place  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes. 

After  the  abdication  of  King  Charles  X.,  in  1830, 
Cherubini  wrote  but  one  more  great  Composition  for 
the  Church — his  Requiem,  in  D  Minor,  completed  in 
1836.  His  last  Opera,  Ali  Baha,  had  been  but  very 
moderately  successful,  in  1833.  The  critics  thought, 
that,  because  he  was  old,  his  genius  was  extinct. 
Yet,  three  years  after  this,  he  wrote  this  wonderful 
Requiem,  which  ranks,  not  only  among  his  very 
finest  works,  but,  among  the  finest  that  have  ever 
been  written  by  any  one.  He  was  then  seventy-six 
years  old.  He  died,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two, 
March  15,  1842. 

The  list  of  Cherubini's  compositions  is  so  extended, 
that  we  cannot  find  space,  even  for  the  principal 
pieces.  But  the  reader  will  find  them  all  men- 
tioned in  the  catalogue,^  drawn  up  by  himself,  and 
embracing  a  period  of  sixty-six  years,  from  1773  to 
1839. 

*  Paris,  1843.  Reprinted  in  Mr.  E.  Bellasis's  Life  of  Cherubini. 
[London,  1874.] 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  CONDITION  OB^  MUSIC,  IN  ITALY,  DURING 
THE  EARLIER  HALF  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

We  have  traced  the  history  of  the  Opera,  in  Italy, 
through  two  full  centuries  of  progress,  from  its 
invention,  in  the  year  1600,  to  the  climax  of  its 
classical  perfection,  in  1801.  Between  Peri's  Euri- 
dice,  and  the  masterpieces  of  Cimarosa,  the  difference 
is  wide  indeed ;  yet,  the  intermediate  phases  of 
development  are  too  clearly  marked  to  permit  the 
possibility  of  misapprehension.  It  is  true  that 
progress  was  not  always  made  in  the  right  direc- 
tion. Brilliant  successes  were  constantly  followed 
by  periods  of  stagnation,  or  even  of  retrogression. 
But,  earnest  men  were  rarely  wanting  for  the  service 
in  hand.  Monteverde  and  Cavalli  did  good  work 
in  the  17th  century;  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  carried 
it  on  into  the  18th,  when  it  was  still  farther  deve- 
loped— though  not  always  in  the  purest  style — by 
Hasse  and  Porpora,  Jomelli  and  Pergolesi,  Terra- 
dellas   and   Traetta,  Guglielmi,  Sacchini,  Salieri, 


iSth  Century.]  Progress  of  Italian  Music,  385 

Sarti,  Paisiello,  Conti,  Steffani,  Clari,  the  three 
Buononcinis,  Piccini,  Righini,  Anfossi,  Galuppi, 
Gabussi,  Morlacclii,  Paer,  and  a  host  of  less  popular 
writers,  until  the  Dmmmajper  la  musica  was  moulded, 
by  the  genius  of  Cimarosa,  into  a  form  which,  but 
for  its  sins  against  dramatic  propriety,  would  have 
been  classically  perfect. 

A  certain  School  of  German  Criticism  characterises 
the  last  two-thirds  of  the  18th  century  as  the  period 
of  the  *Zop/'^;  and  historians  are  not  wanting, 
bold  enough  to  include  Graun,  Adam  Hiller,  Winter, 
Naumann,  and  Weigl,  among  the  ^  ZopfComponisten^ 
of  Germany ;  and  Pergolesi,  Jomelli,  Piccini,  Paisi- 
ello, and  Cimarosa,  among  those  who  flourished  in 
Italy  ;  Alessandro  Scarlatti  himself  being  described 
as  not  altogether  free  from  the  prevailing  taint,  in 
his  later  works.    Strangely  enough,  it  is  to  the  life- 
work  of  the  six  last-named  Composers,  that  Italian 
Melody  owes  its  emancipation  from  the  trammels 
with  which  the  votaries  of  the  Monodic  School 
would  fain  have  strangled  it,  at  the  moment  of  its 
birth.    It  was  their  genius  that  taught  it  to  sub- 
stitute the  free  utterances  of  its  genial  nature  for 
the  crabbed  stiffness  fondly  supposed  to  represent  the 
purity  of  a  long-lost  classical  prototype :  to  speak 

^  Fr.  Ferruque.  Eng.  Pigtail.  A  well-known  modern  writer 
attributes  the  rapid  progress  of  the  *  Zopf  to  '  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Bourbons '  ! 


386 


The  great  Singers.  [i8th  Century. 


to  modern  ears  in  its  own  graceful  language,  instead 
of  that  whicli  might,  or  might  not,  have  been  uttered 
by  a  company  of  Greek  Tragedians,  2000  years  ago. 

If  the  term  '  Zo'pf '  was  ever  fairly  applicable  to 
any  School  at  all,  it  was  assuredly  less  to  that  per- 
fected by  Cimarosa,  than  to  that  of  the  generation 
of  Composers  who  immediately  succeeded  him.  Yet, 
even  these,  though  they  repeated  themselves  and 
each  other  without  scruple,  and  cast  their  Airs  and 
Duets,  with  very  few  exceptions,  in  exactly  the  same 
mould,  did  good  work,  in  a  certain  way.   Too  many 
of  them  were  ready,  at  any  moment,  to  sacrifice  the 
dramatic  situation  to  the  exorbitant  demands  of  a 
popular  vocalist ;  and  few  knew  anything  at  all  of 
the   higher   branches  of  Composition :  but,  they 
wrote  for  the  Voice,  with  a  more  perfect  knowledge 
of  its  capabilities  than  many  very  learned  contra- 
puntists could  boast ;  and  it  is   notorious  that 
Composers  who  have  studied  the  Voice,  aufondy  may 
be  depended  upon  for  creating  a  School  of  Singing 
equal  to   any  emergency.     It  was   to  Handel's 
watchful  guidance  that  Mrs.  Anastasia  Robinson, 
the   rival  prime   donne,    Cuzzoni,  and  Faustina, 
Mesdames  Durastanti,  and  Frasi,  and  Strada,  La 
Francesina,  and  even  the  artificial  Soprani,  Nicolini, 
and  Senesino,  and  Bernacchi,  and  the  contralto 
Carestini,  owed  more  than  half  their  power.  They 
were  great  Singers,  when  he  engaged  them :  but,  he 


IQTH  Century.]  The  great  Singers.  387 


made  them  much  greater  ones.  In  like  manner, 
Por]Dora,  notwitlistanding  the  Treakness  of  his 
Operas,  created  the  School  which  produced  Caffa- 
relli,  and  Farinelli ;  and,  to  the  style  perfected  by 
Cimarosa,  we  owe  all  the  greatest  Singers  of  the 
first  half  of  the  19th  century.  Mesdames  Mara, 
Catalani,  Pasta,  Malibran,  Sontag,  Grisi,  Persian!, 
and  Titiens,  the  great  Tenors,  Manuel  Garcia, 
and  Rubini,  and  Mario,  and  the  incomparable  Bassi, 
Lablache,  and  Tamburini,  all  owed  their  faultless 
method  to  the  purely  vocal  style  of  the  Music  in 
which  it  was  their  ambition  to  excel.^ 

Among  the  Composers  of  this  period  who  made 
the  capabilities  of  the  voice  their  special  study,  one 
of  the  most  successful,  for  a  time,  was  Valentino 
Pioravanti,  [1770 — 1887],  whose  well-known  Opera 
buff  a,  Le  Gantatrici  Villane,  composed  in  1806,  pro- 
cured him  an  invitation  to  Paris,  where,  in  1807,  he 
produced  /  Virtuosi  ambulanti,  with  very  nearly  equal 
success.  In  1816,  he  was  appointed  Maestro  di 
Ca]j]pella  at  S.  Peter's,  in  Rome :  but,  the  Church 
Music  he  wrote  at  this  period  is  of  a  very  inferior 
character,  while  his  Operas — more  than  fifty  in 
number — are  remarkable  for  the  brightness  and 
spontaneity  of  their  style. 

^  "We  naturally  abstain  from  mentioning  the  names  of  living 
Artists,  some  of  whom  still  represent  this  School  in  its  highest 
state  of  develo^^ment. 

c  c  2 


388  Pacini.    Me^'cadante.  [a.d.  i  796-1 870. 

Giovanni  Pacini,  [1796 — 1867],  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  Opera  seria.  His  first  Opera,  Annetta  e 
Lucinda,  was  produced,  at  Milan,  when  he  was  only 
sixteen  years  old,  and  met  with  a  very  favourable 
reception.  In  1826,  Madame  Pasta  achieved  an 
immense  success,  at  Milan,  in  one  of  his  best  works 
— Niohe — which  contains  a  Scena  still  deservedly 
popular ;  but,  in  1834,  his  Carlo  di  Borgogna  failed  so 
lamentably,  at  Venice,  that,  for  several  years,  he 
ceased  to  write  for  the  Stage,  and  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  teaching.  However,  in  1840,  he  was 
again  successful,  with  Saffo,  in  which  the  Countess 
Gigliucci  (then  Miss  Clara  Novello)  achieved  one  of 
her  greatest  triumphs;  and  his  Medea,  [1843],  La 
Begina  di  Oipro,  [1846],  and  Niccolo  de^  Lapi,  were 
received  with  equal  favour,  though  the  last — his 
eightieth  Opera  ! — was  not  produced  till  nearly  six 
years  after  his  death. 

Saverio  Mercadante,  [1797 — 1870],  after  receiving 
an  excellent  education  in  the  Conservatorio,  at 
Naples,  under  the  superintendence  of  Zingarelli,  dis- 
tinguished himself,  both  in  Opera  seria,  and  Opera 
buffa.  His  first  comic  Opera,  Violenza  e  Oostanza,wsiS 
favourably  received,  at  Naples,  in  1819 ;  and,  in 
1822,  his  reputation  was  secured,  by  the  production 
of  EUsa  e  Glaudio,  at  Milan.  Nitocri  was  also  re- 
ceived with  great  favour,  at  Turin,  in  1826 ;  and,  in 
1837,  he  produced  his  masterpiece,  II  Giuramento,  at 


A.D.  1802-1835.]    Vinceiizo  Bellini. 


389 


Milan.  In  1833,  lie  succeeded  Pietro  General!, 
[1783—1832],  afar  less  successful  composer  than 
himself,  as  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  Cathedral  of 
IS'ovara ;  and,  in  1810,  he  was  made  Director 
of  the  Conservatorio  in  which  he  had  himself  been 
educated,  at  Naples.  He  died,  at  Naples,  Dec.  13, 
1870. 

Of  Luigi  Ricci,  [1805—1859],  and  Frederico 
Ricci,  his  brother,  [1809 — 1877],  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  speak,  as  their  works,  though  numerous, 
and  popular,  exercised  no  perceptible  influence  upon 
Italian  Music. 

Vincenzo  Bellini  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best, 
as  well  as  one  of  the  most  popular  Italian  Com- 
posers of  this  century.  He  was  born,  at  Catania, 
November  3,  1802  ;  and  educated,  under  Zingarelli, 
and  in  company  with  Mercadante,  at  the  Conser- 
vatorio, at  Naples^  His  two  first  Operas,  Adelson  e 
Salvino,  [1824],  and  Bianca  e  Fernando,  [1826], 
brought  his  name  well  into  notice ;  and  his  third, 
II  Pirata,  produced  at  Milan,  in  1827,  with  a  Tenor 
part  written  expressly  for  Rubini,  created  a  veritable 
furore.  La  Straniera,  composed  in  1828,  was  re- 
ceived with  less  enthusiasm,  and  Zaira  was  still  more 
unfortunate,  in  1829 ;  but,  in  1830,  I  Cajpuletti  ed  i 
Montecchi,  with  Madame  Pasta  in  the  character  of 
Romeo,  proved  as  brilHant  a  success  as  11  Pirata. 
But,  Bellini's  greatest  triumph  was  reserved  for  the 


390       La  Sonnambula.  Norma,  [a.d.  1831,  1832. 

year  1831,  wlien  he  produced  La  Sonnambula  at 
Milan,  wlience  it  found  its  way,  in  an  incredibly 
short  space  of  time,  to  every  Opera-house  in  Europe. 
The  Opera  was  originally  written  for  Madlle.  Tac- 
chinardi  (afterwards  Mad.  Persiani),  Eubini,  and 
Tamburini ;   but   it  would   be   difficult,  now,  to 
mention  any  great  Italian  singer  who  is  not  identified 
with  one  or  other  of  the  principal  parts.    And  the 
work  is  as  great  a  favourite,  now,  with  the  public, 
as  it  was  fifty  years  ago.    In  1832,  Norma,  with 
Madame  Pasta  as  the  heroine,  established  its  claim 
to  rank,  for  ever,  side  by  side  with  La  Sonnambula. 
Beatrice  cli  Tenda,  composed,  at  Vienna,  in  1833, 
proved  a  very  much  weaker  work,  and  has  not  stood 
the  test  of  time.    But,  I  Puritani,  first  produced  at 
Paris,  in  1835,  with  Mad.  Grisi,  and  Sigri.  Eubini, 
Tamburini,  and  Lablache,  in  the  principal  parts, 
would  alone  have  sufficed  to  establish  the  young 
composer's  reputation,  even  had  it  not  been  preceded 
by  La  Sonnambula  and  Norma,    It  was  Bellini's  last 
effort.    The  excitement  attendant  upon  its  pro- 
duction was  more  than  his  delicate  constitution  could 
endure ;  and,  eight  months  only  after  its  presentation 
to  the  world,  the  young  Composer  breathed  his  last, 
at  Puteaux,  near  Paris,  Sept.  23,  1835. 

Gaetano  Donizetti  was  born,  at  Bergamo,  in  1798 ; 
and  educated,  like  Mercadante,  and  Bellini,  at  the 
Conservatorio,  at  Naples.  He  began  to  compose 
for  the  Theatre,  at  a  very  early  age ;  but  remained 


A.D.  1 798-1 848.]   Gaetano  Donizetti, 


391 


comparatively  unknown,  except  in  Italy,  until  1830 
when  his  Anna  Bolena,  first  produced  at  Milan,  but 
soon  repeated,  at  every  Theatre  in  Europe,  with 
Pasta,  Rubini,  and  Lablache,  in  the  principal  parts, 
established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  best  Italian 
Composers  of  the  period.  EUsir  d!  amove  followed, 
in  1832 ;  Liter ezia  Borgia,  in  1834 ;  and  Lucia  di 
LammermooT — written  for  Madame  Persiani,  and  the 
French  Tenor,  Duprez,  then  singing  at  Naples — in 
1835.  These  are  decidedly  his  best  Operas ;  but  he 
wrote  many  more  which  long  held  possession  of  the 
Stage  as  established  favourites.  Among  these  were, 
Marino  Faliero^  La  Favorita,  I  Martiri^  La  Fille  du 
Regiment,  and  Don  Fasquale,  all  produced  in  Paris  : 
Linda  di  Chamouniy  and  Maria  di  Bohan^  composed 
at  Vienna;  Gemma  di  Vergy,Torquato  Tasso,Parisina, 
Maria  Padilla,  and  many  others,  which  for  a  time 
were  very  popular.  He  is  known  to  have  written 
sixty-three  Operas,  and  probably  completed  many 
more.  His  last  work,  Catarina  Gornaro,  was  pro- 
duced at  Naples,  in  1844.  Soon  after  this,  his  health 
broke  down  ;  and,  in  1848,  he  died,  of  paralysis,  at 
Bergamo. 

The  best  Operas  of  Bellini  and  Donizetti  still  hold 
their  place  on  the  Stage,  and  bid  fair  to  do  so  for 
many  years  to  come,  But,  the  popularity  of  these 
two  talented  Composers  was  as  nothing  compared  to 
that  enjoyed  by  their  great  rival,  Rossini. 

Giacomo  Antonio  Hossini  was  born,  at  Pesaro, 


392 


Gtacomo  Rossini,  [a  d.  1792-1868. 


Feb.  29,  1792.  His  musical  education  was  very 
irregularly  conducted :  but  lie  learned  the  Harpsi- 
chord, the  Horn,  and  the  Yioloncello,  at  a  very  early 
age  ;  and  Angelo  Tesei  taught  him  to  sing  so  well, 
that,  when  barely  thirteen,  he  was  able  to  make  his 
first  appearance  on  the  Stage,  as  Adolfo,  in  Paer's 
Camilla,  He  afterwards  studied  Counterpoint,  at  the 
Liceo,  in  Bologna,  under  Mattel ;  but  cared  so  little 
for  it,  that,  when  the  Maestro  told  him  he  had  not  yet 
learned  enough  to  enable  him  to  write  good  Church 
Music,  he  simply  asked,  *  Can  I  write  Operas  ? ' 
and,  on  being  told  that  he  knew  enough  for  that,  he 
declared  himself  quite  satisfied,  and  refused  to  take 
any  more  lessons.  We  may  well  believe  that  his 
extraordinary  natural  aptitude  had  enabled  him  to 
learn  a  great  deal  more  than  either  he,  or  his 
teachers,  imagined  ;  but,  to  the  last,  his  Scores 
bristled  with  grammatical  errors  which  the  merest 
tyro  could  have  corrected  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Rossini's  first  Opera,  La  Camhiale  di  Matrimonio, 
was  produced,  at  Venice,  in  1810.  In  1811,  he 
wrote  jC'  Equivoco  stravagante^  for  Bologna.  Both 
attempts  were  well  received ;  but,  in  1812,  he  pro- 
duced Inganno  felice,  at  Venice,  and  La  Pletra  del 
Paragone,  at  Milan,  with  real  success,  though  both 
these  Operas  were  completely  thrown  into  the  shade, 
in  1813,  by  Tancredi,  which  created  a  iperiect  furore. 
EJisabetta  Begina  d'  Inghilterra  was  scarcely  less 


A.D.  1816.]        IL  Ba7^biere  di  Siviglia.  393 

successful,  in,  1815  ;  and,  after  tliis,  Rossini's  career 
was  an  almost  uninterrupted  triumpli.  It  is  true 
that  his  greatest  Opera  buffa,  II  Bavhiere  di  Siviglia, 
was  hissed,  on  the  night  of  its  first  performance,  at 
Rome,  where  it  was  first  produced,  in  1816,  under 
the  title  of  Almaviva.  But,  this  was  only  because 
the  same  subject  had  been  treated  by  Paisiello, 
whose  work  had  long  been  very  popular.  After  the 
first  night,  the  success  of  the  new  piece  was  so 
great,  that  managers  no  longer  feared  to  present  it 
under  its  true  name,  II  Barbiere,  notwithstanding 
the  use  made  of  that  title  by  Paisiello,  twenty-five 
years  previously.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year, 
(1816),  Rossini  composed  one  of  his  best  serious 
Operas,  Otello,  for  Naples.  In  this,  and  in  Elisa- 
hetta,  he  made  a  great  innovation.  It  had  previously 
been  the  custom  to  accompany  the  general  Recitative 
with  a  simple  Figured  Bass.  For  this  style 
of  writing,  called  Becitativo  secco,  he  substituted, 
throughout  the  entire  Opera,  the  richer  form 
called  Becitativo  stromentato,  accompanied  by  the 
full  Stringed  Orchestra,  sometimes  still  farther 
strengthened  by  the  Wind  Instruments,  thus  making 
a  very  near  approach  to  the  technical  basis  of  a 
far  grander  Art-form  destined  to  be  more  fully  de- 
veloped, in  later  times. 

Rossini's  next  masterpieces  were.  La  Generentola, 
[1817],  La  Gazza  ladra,  [1817],  Mose  in  Egitto, 


394  Guillaume  Tell,  [a.d.  1829. 

[1818],  La  Donna  del  Lago,  [1819],  and  Zelmira, 
[1821].  The  principal  role,  in  most  of  these  Operas, 
was  written  for  Madlle.  Colbran,  whom  the  Composer 
married,  in  1822.  In  company  with  this  great 
singer,  Eossini  travelled  to  Vienna,  where  he  was 
received  with  enthusiasm.  Returning  to  Italy,  he 
composed  Semiramide,  at  Venice,  in  1823 ;  and  was 
so  dissatisfied  with  its  reception,  that  he  determined 
to  write  no  more  Operas  in  Italy.  After  a  short 
visit  to  London,  in  1823-4,  he  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  remodelled  many  of  his  early  works,  to 
suit  the  taste  of  a  French  audience,  and,  in  1829, 
produced  his  last  great  Opera,  Guillaume  Tell. 
After  this,  he  wrote  no  more  for  the  Stage  :  but,  in 
1842,  he  completed  his  exquisite  Stahat  Mater,  the 
first  six  Movements  of  which  had  been  written  ten 
years  previously;  and,  in  1864,  he  gave  to  the  world 
his  veritable  chant  du  cygne,  the  Messe  solennelle. 
To  the  end  of  his  life,  he  possessed  the  art,  not  only 
of  attaining  popularity,  but  of  gaining  the  affections 
of  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  His  first  wife 
having  died,  in  1845,  he  married,  in  1847,  Madlle. 
Olympe  Pelissier;  and,  beloved  by  all  who  knew 
him,  he  died,  at  Passy,  Nov.  13,  1868. 

With  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  Rossini,  the  true 
Italian  School  died  out.  Of  that  which  is  destined 
to  succeed  it,  it  is  too  soon  to  speak ;  for,  the  Com- 
posers who  are  now  devoting  themselves  to  its  culti- 


A.D.  1868.]  Death  of  Rossini,  395 

vation  have  scarcely  yet  had  time  to  establish  its 
principles  upon  a  firm  and  logical  basis,  or  even  to 
prove  that  it  really  is  an  indigenous  School,  un- 
influenced by  foreign  trains  of  thought.  Under  these 
circumstances,  it  would  be  manifestly  unfair  to  subject 
its  productions  to  serious  criticism,  until  farther 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  new  direction. 


Fig.  49. 

MADAME  MALIBRAN. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 


THE  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

With  the  death  of  Beethoven,  in  1827,  the  School 
of  Vienna  passed  its  culminating  point :  with  that 
of  Schubert,  in  1828,  its  last  hope  of  a  glorious 
future  was  extinguished.  Long  before  these  sad 
events  took  place,  the  public  taste  had  deteriorated, 
beyond  all  chance  of  regeneration.  In  1788,  Saheri's 
miserable  Tarare^  had  been  preferred  to  II  Bon  Gio- 
vanni. In  1823,  the  greatness  of  Euryanthe — one 
of  the  noblest  Musical  Dramas  in  existence — had 
made  but  a  very  inadequate  impression,  even  upon 
the  most  enlightened  of  the  pretended  cognoscenti. 
To  Fiemhras,  no  one  had  cared  to  listen.  The  weakest 
Italian  Composers  stood  a  better  chance  of  success 
than  the  grandest  representatives  of  native  talent. 
Ferdinando  Paer,  [1771 — 1839],  had  been  received 
with  open  arms ;  and  his  poor  Operas  were  listened 
to,  with  delight,  in  the  city  which  had  refused  a 
hearing  to  Alfonso  und  Estrella.    And  the  prospects 

^  Afterwards  remodelled,  under  the  title  of  Axui\  Re  dC  Ormus, 


I  8th  Century.]  Progress  of  Germaii  Music.  397 


of  German  Art  were  little  better  in  other  great 
cities.  Morlacchi  was  preferred  to  Weber,  at  Dres- 
den. In  Berlin,  Spontini  was  powerful  enough  to 
stifle  Mendelssohn's  youthful  inspiration,  Die  Hoch- 
zeit  des  Gamaclio ;  and  very  nearly  succeeded  in 
performing  the  same  kind  office  for  Jessonda,  and 
Der  Freischiltz.  Truly,  the  promise  for  the  future 
was  not  encouraging.  Yet,  good  men  and  true 
were  ready  to  fill  the  breach.  We  have  seen  how 
nobly  Weber,  and  Spohr,  and  Mendelssohn,  and 
Schumann,  devoted  themselves,  with  heart  and  soul, 
to  the  cultivation  of  German  Art,  in  its  purest  and 
most  characteristic  forms.  And,  there  were  other 
Composers,  who,  if  they  failed  to  attain  the  same 
high  level,  were  scarcely  less  in  earnest  than  they. 
Leaving  Masters  of  the  highest  rank  out  of  the 
question,  we  may  fairly  say  that  the  work  begun,  in 
the  17th  century,  by  Michael  Pratorius  [1571 — 
1621],  Heinrich  Schiitz,  [1585—1672],  and  Johann 
Theile,  [1646—1724]  ;  and  carried  on,  in  the  18th, 
by  Georg  Philipp  Telemann,  [1681 — 1767],  Joachim 
Quantz,  Chamber  Musician  to  King  Frederick  the 
Great,  [1697—1773],  Johann  Adolf  Hasse,  [1699— 
1783],  Carl  Heinrich  Graun,  [1701—1795],  Georg 
Benda,  [1721—1795],  Johann  Friedrich  Doles, 
[1715—1797],  Karl  Ditters  von  Dittersdorf,  [1739 
— 1799],  Mich99l  Haydn,  brother  of  the  Composer 
of  the  Creation,  [1737—1806],  Adam  Hiller,  the 


398 


Peter  von  Winter,  [a.d.  175 4- 1825. 


inventor  of  the  Sing  spiel,  [1728 — 1804],  Joliann 
Gottlieb  Naumann,  [1741—1801],  Christian  Theo- 
dor  Weinlig,  [1780—1842],  Ignaz  Joseph  Pleyel, 
[1757—1881],  the  Abbe  Georg  Joseph  Yogler, 
[1749 — 1814],  and  Franz  Xaver  Siissmayer,  the 
posthumous  editor  of  Mozart's  Requiem,  and 
composer  of  some  very  successful  Operas,  [1766 
— 1803]  ; — the  great  work,  we  say,  prosecuted,  with 
varying  success,  by  these  industrious  writers,  and 
many  more,  of  equal  merit,  who,  if  they  lacked  the 
voice  of  direct  inspiration,  were  at  least  gifted  with 
genuine  talent,  was  not  suffered,  in  the  earlier 
years  of  the  19th  century,  to  collapse,  for  want  of 
worthy  successors,  well  qualified  still  farther  to  ad- 
vance it,  in  directions  equally  honourable  to  them- 
selves, and  to  the  great  German  School  of  which 
they  were  the  faithful  and  devoted  representatives. 

One  of  these — Peter  von  Winter — was  born,  at 
Mannheim,  in  1754.  Though  he  adapted  both  Ger- 
man and  Italian  libretti  to  Music,  he  was  far  happier 
with  the  former,  than  with  the  latter  ;  and  made  his 
greatest  successes,  at  Vienna,  in  Das  Labyrinth  and 
Die  Pyramiden  von  Babylon,  (both  written  for  him  by 
Schikaneder,  in  continuation  of  Die  Zauberflote,  with 
the  libretto  for  which  he  had  previously  furnished 
Mozart).  His  still  more  popular  Opera,  Das  unter- 
brochene  Opferfest,  made  the  run  of  Europe.  He 
died,  at  Munich,  in  1825. 


A.D.  1 776-1 82 2.]      Hoffma^m.  399 

Conradin  Kreutzer,  born,  at  Mosskircli,  in  1782, 
wrote  numerous  Operas,  mostly  for  Vienna.  The 
most  popular  were  Lihussa,  [1822],  and  Das  Nacht- 
lager  in  Granada,  [1834].  He  died,  at  Riga,  in  1849. 

Rodolphe  Kreutzer,  the  Composer  of  the  once 
popular  Opera  Lodoiska,  was  bom,  at  Paris,  in  1766, 
and  died  in  1831.  He  was  an  excellent  Violinist; 
and  it  was  to  him  that  Beethoven  dedicated  the 
famous  Viohn  Sonata  (Op.  47)  which  bears  his 
name. 

Vincenzo  Eighini,  born,  at  Bologna,  in  1756,  wrote 
both  for  the  Church,  and  the  Theatre,  at  Vienna, 
and  Berlin,  but  his  works,  though  not  without  great 
merit,  have  long  been  forgotten.   He  died  in  1812. 

Ernst  Theodor  "Wilhelm  Hoffmann  was  born,  at 
Konigsberg,  in  1776.  Though  better  known  by  his 
literary  productions  than  by  his  Music,  scarcely  any 
of  which  has  been  published,  he  was,  nevertheless, 
one  of  the  most  enthusiastic  disciples  of  the  true 
Romantic  School.  Eleven  of  his  Operas  are  pre- 
served, in  MS.,  in  the  Berlin  Library ;  and  one  of 
these — Undine,  produced  in  1817,  and  remarkable, 
both  for  the  originality  of  its  Instrumentation,  and 
the  strong  individualisation  of  its  Dramatis  per- 
sonce — proved  fine  enough  to  excite  Weber's  undis- 
guised admiration.  He  died,  while  travelling  in 
Silesia,  in  1822. 

Adalbert  Gyrowetz  was  born,  at  Budweis,  in 


400  Joseph  WeigL     [ad.  i 766-1 846. 

Bohemia,  in  1763.  Tliougli  a  more  highly-educated 
Musician  than  Hoffmann,  and  a  very  much  more  pro- 
lific Composer,  he  was  far  from  possessing  the  same 
amount  of  natural  talent ;  it  is,  therefore,  the  less 
to  be  wondered  at  that,  of  his  sixty  Symphonies, 
and  more  than  thirty  Operas,  not  one  survived  his 
decease,  which  took  place,  at  Vienna,  in  1849. 

Joseph  Weigl,  born,  at  Eisenstadt,  in  1766,  was 
both  more  original  in  style,  and  more  fortunate. 
His  attention  was  nearly  equally  divided,  between 
the  publication  of  German  and  Italian  Operas. 
Nearly  all  his  works,  in  both  branches  of  Art, 
were  successful.  One  of  his  German  Operas,  Die 
Schwekerfamilie,  produced  at  Vienna,  in  1809,  is, 
even  now,  occasionally  revived,  with  good  effect. 
The  success  of  this  encouraged  him  to  write  for  the 
Stage,  until  the  year  1825,  when,  on  obtaining  an 
appointment  in  the  Court  Chapel,  at  Vienna,  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  Sacred  Music.  He  died,  at 
Vienna,  in  1846. 

Peter  Joseph  von  Lindpaintner.  a  Composer,  of 
indisputable  talent,  and  one  of  the  best  Conductors 
in  Europe,  was  born,  at  Coblenz,  in  1791.  He 
held  the  post  of  Kapellmeister,  at  Stuttgart,  for  37 
years — from  the  year  1819,  until  his  death — and 
brought  his  Orchestra  to  so  high  a  point  of  perfec- 
tion, that  Mendelssohn  said  he  played  upon  it, 
with  his  baton,  as  if  it  had  been  a  single  instru- 


A.D.  1828.]  Der  Vampyr.  401 

ment.  Of  his  numerous  Operas — nearly  all  belong- 
ing to  the  Romantic  School — the  best  were,  Der 
Vampyr,  Der  Bergkonig,  and  Die  Sicilianische  Vesjoer. 
Equally  worthy  of  remembrance  is  his  Overture  and 
Incidental  Music  to  Goethe'' s  Faust;  and  few  Songs 
have  been  more  popular  than  Roland,  and  Die  Fah- 
nenwacht — the  last,  well  known  in  England  as  The 
Standardbearer.  Lindpaintner  died,  at  Nonnenhorn, 
on  the  Bodensee,  in  1856. 

In  Heinrich  Marschner,  born,  at  Zittau,  in  1796, 
the  Romantic  School  found  a  worshipper  no  less 
devoted  than  its  two  great  apostles,  Weber,  and 
Spohr,  for  the  first  of  whom  he  entertained  a  sin- 
cere and  lasting  personal  affection.  His  first  two 
Operas,  Der  Kyfihduser  Berg,  and  Heinrich  IV., 
were  composed  at  Pressburg ;  but  the  production  of 
Heinrich  IV.  at  Dresden,  under  Weber's  direction,  led 
to  Marschner' s  appointment  there  as  joint  Kapell- 
meister with  the  Composer  of  Der  Freischutz  and 
Morlacchi.  After  Weber's  death,  in  1826,  Marschner 
became  Kapellmeister  at  Leipzig,  and  here,  in  1828, 
he  produced  one  of  his  masterpieces,  Der  Vampyr, 
the  gloomy  horror  of  which  produced  a  profound 
sensation,  both  in  Germany,  and  in  England,  where 
the  work  soon  became  immensely  and  most  de- 
servedly popular.  Weber  alone  could  have  treated 
the  terrible  story  with  deeper  perception  of  its 
preternatural  ghastliness ;  and  even  he,  had  he  still 

D  d 


402 


Hans  He  iling,  [ a .  d  .  1833. 


been  living,  would  liave  been  proud  of  his  friend's 
acbievement.  Nevertheless,  in  his  next  great  Opera, 
Der  Templer  und  die  Jildin,  founded  on  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  Ivanhoe,  Marschner  proved  that  he  could  be 
as  genial  as  he  had  before  been  gloomy.  The 
chivalrous  pomp  of  the  subject,  the  individuality- 
given  to  the  different  characters,  the  quaint  humour 
of  the  Scenes  with  Friar  Tuck,  and,  above  all,  the 
genial  flow  of  melody  which  pervades  the  entire 
work,  ensured  its  immediate  success;  and  its  pro- 
duction, at  Leipzig,  in  1829,  was  a  triumph.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  Hans  Eeiling,  produced,  at 
Hanover,  in  1833.  Here,  again,  the  Opera  depends, 
for  its  effect,  almost  entirely  upon  the  Composer's 
masterly  treatment  of  the  supernatural  element ;  the 
hero  of  the  story  being  the  son  of  a  human  father, 
long  since  dead,  and  a  Spirit  Queen  :  and  here, 
again,  Marschner  shows  himself  so  fully  equal  to 
the  demands  of  the  libretto,  that  most  critics  consider 
Hans  Heiling  his  greatest  work.  And  it  certainly 
is  greater  than  either  Des  Falkners  Braut,  [1S32], 
Das  Schloss  am  Aetna,  [1838],  Adolph  von  Nassau, 
[1843],  or  any  of  his  latest  works,  all  of  which 
seem  to  have  suffered,  more  or  less,  from  the  de- 
pressing effect  of  theatrical  jealousy  and  intrigue. 
This  circumstance  did  not,  however,  prevent  Marsch- 
ner from  continuing  his  connection  with  the  Theatre 
at  Hanover,  until  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1861. 


A.D.  1837.]    Czaar  und  Zimmermann.  403 

Gustav  Albert  Lortzing  was  born,  at  Berlin,  in 
180B.  Though,  in  his  youth,  a  Tenor  singer  of  fair 
reputation,  he  was  not,  unfortunately,  a  very  accom- 
phshed  Musician;  and,  hence,  his  Operas,  though 
graceful  and  melodious,  contrast  very  unfavourably 
with  those  of  more  highly- educated  Composers. 
Nevertheless,  his  Gmar  und  Zimmermann^  produced, 
at  Leipzig,  in  1837,  soon  became  a  popular  favourite, 
and  kept  its  place  on  the  Stage  for  many  years. 
Among  his  other  works,  the  most  successful  were, 
Ber  Wildschutz,  [1842],  Undine,  [1845],  Der  Waffen- 
schmied,  [1846],  and  Die  Roland shnapp en,  [1849]. 
With  the  exception  of  Der  Waffenschmied,  composed 
at  Vienna,  these  were  all  produced  at  Leipzig,  where 
Lortzing  was  once  very  popular,  and  held,  for  some 
time,  the  post  of  Kapellmeister :  but,  in  his  later 
years,  the  tide  of  public  favour  turned  against  him; 
and  he  died,  at  Berlin,  in  1852,  cruelly  neglected, 
though  his  remains  were  '  honoured  '  with  a  solemn 
pubUc  funeral.  He  was  certainly  not  a  great  Com- 
poser :  but,  he  deserved  a  better  fate. 

Friedrich  Freiherr  von  Flotow  was  another  Com- 
poser, more  remarkable  for  his  natural  talent  than 
for  the  depth  of  his  musical  learning.  He  was 
born,  at  Teutendorf,  in  Mecklenburg,  in  1812  ;  but 
passed  much  of  his  life  in  Paris,  where  his  first 
successful  Opera — a  French  one,  entitled  Le  Nau- 
frage   de   la   Meduse — was    composed,   in  1839. 

D  d  2 


404     Allgemeine  mtisikalische  Zeitungl'  1798. 

Stradella,  produced  at  HambTirg,  in  1844,  was  long 
popular  in  Germany ;  but  Martha,  composed  at 
Vienna,  in  1847,  was  equally  successful  in  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  and  England.  His  later  Operas  pro- 
duced but  little  effect,  with  tbe  exception  of  L'Omhre, 
which  had  a  long  run,  in  Paris,  in  1869.  Un- 
doubtedly, Herr  von  Flotow  possessed  real  talent ; 
but,  as  in  the  case  of  Herr  Xaver  Schnyder  von  War- 
tensee,  [1786 — 1868],  that  circumstance  only  makes 
one  still  more  deeply  regret  the  imperfection  of  his 
musical  education.    Herr  von  Flotow  died  in  1883. 

But,  it  is  time  that  we  should  turn,  for  a  moment, 
from  the  Theatre,  in  order  to  consider  the  progress 
made  by  some  earnest  workers  in  other  departments 
of  Art.  Friedrich  Johann  Eochlitz,  one  of  the  best, 
and  most  enlightened  musical  critics  that  the  century 
has  produced,  was  born,  at  Leipzig,  in  1769,  and 
spent  nearly  the  whole  of  his  life  in  the  prosecution 
of  literary  work,  in  his  native  town,  where,  in  1798, 
he  founded  the  Allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung,  the 
most  valuable  musical  periodical  in  Germany. 
Though  he  composed  but  little,  he  was  a  thorough 
Musician ;  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  draw  serious 
attention  to  the  older  Composers  of  the  Polyphonic 
Period,  by  publishing  a  series  of  Vocal  Pieces, 
chronologically  arranged,  from  a.d.  1380,  to  1760, 
under  the  title  of  Sammlung  vorzuglicher  Gesangstiicke, 
Sfc.    [Schott.  1838—1840,  3  vols.]    He  also  wrote 


A.D.  1 792-1 868.]  Moritz  Hauptmann,  405 

the  libretti  for  Spolir's  Die  letzten  Dinge,  and  Des 
Heilands  letzten  Stunden,  and  some  other  works  of 
less  importance.    He  died,  at  Leipzig,  in  1842. 

Moritz  Hanptmann,  one  of  Rocblitz's  most  zealous 
fellow-labourers,  was  born,  at  Dresden,  Oct.  13, 
1792.  In  1811,  he  studied  the  Violin  under  Spohr ; 
and,  after  a  short  residence  in  Dresden,  and  a  long 
stay  in  Russia,  he  became  a  member  of  that  great 
Artist's  Orchestra,  at  Cassel.  In  1842,  he  was 
elected  Cantor  of  the  Thomas-Schule,  at  Leipzig; 
and,  in  1843,  Mendelssohn  appointed  him  Professor 
of  Counterpoint  in  his  newly-founded  Conserva- 
torium.  Here  Hauptmann  was  in  his  element.  He 
was  an  admirable,  though  not  a  voluminous  Com- 
poser ;  but  he  was  also  a  profound  critic,  the  most 
learned  Contrapuntist  of  the  age,  and  unequalled 
as  a  teacher  of  the  Theory  of  Music,  in  all  its 
branches.^  His  most  important  work.  Die  Natur 
der  Harmonik  und  Metrik,  was  published  in  1853. 
He  died,  at  Leipzig,  Jan.  3,  1868,  beloved  by  all 
who  knew  him.  Three  volumes  of  his  letters,  pub- 
lished in  1871-6,  form  a  most  valuable  contribution 
to  the  Literature  of  Music. 

Friedrich  Johann  Christian  Schneider,  born  at 
Alt-Waltersdorf,  in  Saxony,  in  1786,  was  another 
very   learned   Contrapuntist,    and    an  excellent 

^  The  writer  is  able  to  supply  these  particulars,  from  his  own 
personal  experience  of  Herr  Hauptmann's  method  of  teaching. 


4o6  Friedrich  Schneider,  [a.d.  i  786-1853. 

teacher.  In  1813,  lie  was  elected  Organist  of  the 
Thomas-Kirclie,  in  Leipzig;  and,  in  1821,  lie  was 
appointed  Kapellmeister  at  Dessau,  where,  eight 
years  later,  he  founded  a  Musical  Institute,  which 
prospered  exceedingly,  and  in  which  many  pupils 
received  an  Art-education  of  the  highest  order. 
But,  the  labour  of  teaching  in  no  wise  prevented 
Schneider  from  occupying  himself  with  the  still 
more  important  work  of  Composition.  The  long 
list  of  his  productions  includes  no  less  than  sixteen 
Oratorios,  of  which  the  best  known  are  Das  Welt- 
gericht  [1819],  Die  Sundfluth,  [1823],  Absalon, 
[1830],  and  Gethsemane  und  GolgotKa,  [1838].  The 
beauty  of  these  fine  works  was  freely  recognised, 
by  large  and  enlightened  audiences,  at  the  time  of 
their  production :  yet,  the  only  one  that  has  ever 
been  heard,  out  of  Germany,  was  Die  Sundfluth, 
translated,  by  Professor  E.  Taylor,  and  performed, 
at  Norwich,  under  the  title  of  The  Deluge  ;  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  one  of  them  is  now  remem- 
bered, even  in  the  town  in  which  it  first  saw  the 
light.  Fr.  Schneider  died,  in  1853.  His  younger 
brother — Johann  Gottlob  Schneider,  of  Dresden, 
[1789 — 1864] — long  held  the  appointment  of  Court 
Organist  to  the  King  of  Saxony,  and  was  by  far  the 
finest  player  on  the  instrument,  and  the  finest 
teacher,  in  Germany. 

The  Composers  of  whose  work  we  have  given 


A.D.  1849.]  Die  hcstigen  Weiber  von  Windsor.  407 

this  rapid  sketch  bring  us  fairly  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century  :  and  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  many  of  them  were  labouring  side  by  side  with 
the  greater  Masters  into  the  history  of  whose  lives 
we  have  entered  with  more  attention  to  detail; 
supplementing  their  endeavours  to  raise  the  national 
School  to  the  highest  point  of  excellence ;  and  often 
working  in  direct  correspondence  with  them,  for 
the  attainment  of  that  noble  end. 

Otto  ISTicolai  was  a  very  earnest  worker  indeed. 
He  was  born,  at  Xonigsberg,  in  1810  ;  and,  in  1827, 
took  lessons  from  Zelter,  at  Berlin.  He  afterwards 
studied  in  Rome,  under  Baini,  and  thus  acquired 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  mysteries  of  the 
School  of  Palestrina.  He  began  his  career  by 
writing  Italian  Operas,  two  of  which  were  produced 
at  Trieste,  and  one  at  Turin.  In  1841,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Hof kapellmeister  at  Vienna ;  and,  in  1847, 
he  was  honoured  with  the  same  appointment  at 
Berlin,  where,  in  1849,  he  produced  the  work  upon 
which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests,  Die  lustigen  Weiber 
von  Windsor,  founded  upon  Shakespeare's iferr?/  wives 
of  Windsor.  The  success  of  this  was  most  brilliant ; 
but,  two  months  only  after  its  first  performance, 
Nicolai  was  struck  with  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  of  which 
he  died,  on  the  11th  of  May,  1849. 

No  less  sincere  in  his  love  for  Art  than  Nicolai, 
and  no  less  richly  endowed  with  natural  gifts,  was 


4o8       Der  Wider spdnstigen  Z'dhnmng.  [a.d.  1874. 

Hermann  Goetz ;  another  earnest  worker,  whose 
brightest  hopes  were,  in  like  manner,  destined  to 
be  prematurely  eclipsed,  at   the    moment  when 
success  seemed  certain.    He,  too,  was  a  native  of 
Konigsberg,  where  he  was  born  in  1840.  Though 
his  talent   declared  itself  early,   he  received  no 
regular  instruction,  until  1856,  when  he  studied,  at 
Berlin,  under  Herr  Hans  von  Billow,  and  Hugo 
Ulrich.    In  1863,  he  was  appointed  Organist,  at 
at  Winterthiir,  where  he  devoted  himself,  with  con- 
scientious ardour,  to  the  study  of  Composition,  and, 
in  process  of  time,  completed  the  work  upon  which 
his  fame   chiefly  rests — an  Opera,   entitled  Der 
Widerspdnstigen    Zdhmung,  the  libretto  of  which 
was  founded,  by  J.  Y.  Widmann,  upon  Shakespeare's 
Taming  of  the  Shrew.    Unknown,  and  inexperienced 
in  everything  save  his  beloved  Art,  he  found  im- 
mense difficulty  in  getting  this  charming  Musical 
Drama  performed  ;  but,  through  the  generous  inter- 
vention of  Herr  Frank,  whose  critical  experience 
enabled  him  to  estimate  the  work  at  its  true  value,  the 
moment  the  Score  was  submitted  to  him  for  perusal, 
it  was  performed,  on  Oct.  11,  1874,  at  Mannheim, 
and  received  with  such  enthusiasm,  that,  in  an  in- 
credibly short  time,  it  made  its  way  to  Vienna, 
Berlin,  Leipzig,  and,  eventually,  to  England.  En- 
couraged by  this  success,    Goetz    next  wrote  a 
Symphony— his  only  one — which  added  greatly  to 


A.D.  1877.]      Francesca  di  Rimini.  409 

his  reputation ;  and  began  another  Opera,  entitled 
Francesca  di  'Rimini.  Of  this,  however,  he  was 
only  able  to  complete  the  first  two  Acts,  and  furnish 
a  sketch  of  the  third,  before  his  premature  and 
deeply-lamented  death,  which  took  place,  near 
Ziirich,  in  1876.  In  accordance  with  his  last  request, 
Francesca  di  Bimini  was  completed,  by  his  friend, 
Frank,  and  performed,  at  Mannheim,  in  1877. 

Unlike  the  two  last-named  Composers,  Joseph 
Joachim  EafF  depends  for  his  reputation,  not  upon 
one  single  production,  however  excellent,  but,  upon 
a  long  catalogue  of  works,  in  every  style  of  Art,  the 
merit  of  which  is  of  a  very  high  order  indeed.  He 
was  born,  at  Lachen,  near  Ziirich,  May  27,  1822  ; 
and,  but  for  the  kindly  advice  and  guidance  he  re- 
ceived from  three  illustrious  friends,  might  have  been 
described  as  an  entirely  self-taught  genius.  The 
three  good  friends  were,  the  ever-generous  Abbe 
Liszt,  with  whom  he  became  acquainted,  in  1845,  Herr 
Hans  von  Biilow,  and  Mendelssohn,  whose  promise 
to  receive  him  as  a  regular  pupil  was  frustrated  by 
his  untimely  death.  But,  no  difficulties  appalled 
him.  He  wrote  incessantly,  though,  after  his  settle- 
ment in  Wiesbaden,  where  he  married  Madlle. 
Doris  Genarfc,  he  was  compelled  to  devote  a  certain 
portion  of  his  time  to  Piano-forte  teaching.  Of  his 
three  Operas,  the  two  earliest,  Konig  Alfred,  and 
Dame  Kobold,  were  produced,  at  Wiemar,  in  1850, 


Joachim  Raff,     [a.d.  182 2-1 882. 


and  1870.  The  third,  Samson,  lie  completed,  but 
did  not  live  to  see  performed.  But,  his  true 
strength  lay  in  his  Instrumental  Music,  and,  notably, 
in  his  Sijmphonies — eleven  in  number,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  indicating  a  strong  sympathy  with  the 
Eomantic  SchooL  In  the  Finale  of  his  ThM  Sym- 
phony, (Op.  153),  called  Im  Walde,  he  depicts  the  mad 
career  of  the  Wild  Huntsman  with  a  weird  power, 
scarcely  less  striking  than  that  shown  by  Weber  in 
Der  Freischuk,  yet,  without  the  slightest  taint  of 
plagiarism  from  that  immortal  work.  In  his  Fifth 
Symphony,  (Op.  177),  entitled  Lenore,  and  written  in 
illustration  of  Burger's  famous  Ballad,  he  presents 
the  whole  story,  in  detail,  with  a  precision  truly  mar- 
vellous. The  passionate  love  scenes,  between  the 
hero  and  heroine;  the  warlike  March,  interrupted 
by  Lenore's  unseemly  loss  of  self-control  at  the 
moment  of  parting ;  the  visit  of  the  Spectre  Bride- 
groom, whose  whispered  words  of  invitation  to  the 
wedding-feast  are  accompanied  by  the  impatient 
movements  of  the  Phantom  Charger,  as  he  paws  the 
ground,  before  the  cottage  door :  all  these  are  por- 
trayed with  an  intensity  of  perception,  which  sets 
mere  verbal  description  at  defiance,  yet  is  never,  for 
a  moment,  suffered  to  interfere  with  the  symmetry 
of  form  needed  for  the  technical  development  of 
a  regularly-constructed  Symphony.  Even  in  the 
Finale,  this  element  of  form  is  rigorously  observed. 


A.D.  1822-1882.]    Joachim  Raff, 


411 


tliougli  every  incident  of  the  fearful  ride  is  described 
in  detail :  the  galloping  of  the  horse,  by  the  un- 
interrupted rhythmical  figure,  maintained,  by  the 
Violoncellos,  and  other  stringed  instruments,  from 
beginning  to  end  of  the  Movement;  the  ghostly 
Funeral,  by  a  Dirge,  sustained  by  the  Trombones  ; 
the  Fetter- dance  of  the  dangling  malefactors,  by  a 
motivo  in  triple  time  ;  the  eldritch  cries  of  the  night- 
birds,  as  they  circle  around  the  gallows-tree,  by  the 
higher  notes  of  the  '  Wood-wind.'  And,  when  the 
lone  Church-yard  is  reached,  a  moment  of  awful 
silence  precedes  another  Funeral  Hymn,  with  a 
soft  ethereal  accompaniment  which  speaks  more 
plainly  than  even  Biirger's  words,  of  the  forgiveness 
of  the  terrified  sinner.  Truly,  Rafi"'s  powers  of 
description  were  more  than  ordinarily  eloquent. 
And  his  power  of  production  was  so  great,  that  his 
pubHshed  works  alone  are  more  than  two  hundred 
in  number.  Yet,  he  never  repeated  himself ;  and 
his  invention  was  so  inexhaustible,  that  he  continued 
to  write,  until  the  very  moment  of  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1882. 

We  spoke  of  Robert  Schumann,  in  a  former  chap- 
ter, as  the  representative  of  modern  German  Music, 
in  the  last  phase  but  one  of  its  development.  We 
have  now  fairly  reached  the  threshold  of  the  latest 
phase  of  all.  We  have  yet  to  consider  an  Art- form 
which  has  sprung  into  existence  and  reached  ma- 


412         The  latest  German  Co7npose7's.    [a.d.  1885. 

turity,  and — alas  !  that  we  should  have  to  say  so  ! — 
passed  its  culminatmg  point,  within  the  memory  of 
men  who  have  not  yet  grown  old.  We  have  yet  to 
speak  of  its  noble  aim  ;  its  heroic  self-sacrifice ;  its 
monumental  achievements.  And — more  difficult 
task,  by  far  ! — to  consider  its  probable  influence 
upon  the  future.  And  this,  before  the  old  things 
have  passed  away.  For,  Dr.  Ferdinand  Hiller,  and 
Max  Bruch,  and  Joseph  Joachim,  and  Brahms, 
and  Gade,  and  Dvorak,  are  still  among  us ;  no  idle 
lookers  on,  but  conscientious  workers,  each  spending 
himself,  and  being  spent,  for  love  of  the  Art  he 
worships,  and  each  supposed,  by  those  who  look  at 
the  outside  of  things  only,  to  be  working  in  anta- 
gonism to  the  moving  spirit  of  the  newest  mani- 
festation of  all.  But,  is  this  so  ?  Is  it  not  true 
that  all  roads  lead  to  Eome  ?  That  all  work,  begun 
in  earnest,  and  carried  on,  in  martyrdom  of  self — if 
need  be — for  love  of  our  pure  and  ever-beautiful 
Mistress,  must  of  necessity  tend  to  one  and  the 
same  great  end  ?  Earnestness  of  purpose  is  all 
that  Art  requires,  of  the  greatest,  as  of  the  least 
of  her  votaries.  When  that  is  present  the  humblest 
subaltern  can  do  something  for  the  good  cause. 
Without  it,  the  most  brilliant  talents  serve  only  to 
increase  the  evil  wrought  by  their  unworthy  in- 
heritor. Let  us,  then,  strive  to  cast  all  ephemeral 
prejudices  to  the  winds ;  and  believe  that,  in  Art, 


A.D.  1885.]  The  latest  German  Composers.  413 

as  in  Nature,  a  thousand  influences  are  working 
together  for  the  general  good ;  and  that,  in  endea- 
vouring to  cultivate  any  one  of  these  influences,  how- 
ever good  it  may  be  in  itself,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
others,  we  are  retarding  the  advance  of  Art,  instead 
of  encouraging  its  progress,  and  working  for  the 
advancement  of  self,  while  pretending  that  we 
are  sacrificing  ourselves,  for  the  sake  of  leading 
others  in  the  right  way.  We  shall  never  lead  others 
in  the  right  way,  nor  walk  in  it  ourselves,  so  long 
as  we  suffer  one  single  prejudice  to  darken  our 
perception  of  pure  artistic  truth :  and  pure  artistic 
truth  most  certainly  does  not  consist  in  the  glorifi- 
cation of  one  element  of  ideal  perfection,  at  the 
expense  of  another. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


THE  FRENCH  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

What  Handel  did  for  the  Engiisli  School  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  he  took  up  the  great  work 
of  progress  where  Purcell  had  left  it,  in  order  to 
raise  it  to  the  level  of  the  Messiah  and  Israel  in 
Egypt,  Cherubini  did  for  the  French  School,  when 
he  identified  his  lot  with  the  supporters  of  the 
Academic,  and  the  Opera  Comique.  But,  he  was 
not  left  to  bear  the  burden  alone.  Side  by  side 
with  him,  when  he  first  settled  in  Paris,  worked 
Gretry,  Mehul,  and  Boieldieu;  three  Composers 
of  whom  France  will  never  cease  to  feel  proud — for 
their  style  was  too  elevated  to  depend  for  its  success 
upon  the  caprice  of  fashion — though  they  never 
enjoyed  the  popularity,  scarcely  less  than  miracu- 
lous, attained  by  some  of  their  successors,  of  whom 
it  is  now  time  that  we  should  speak. 

Francois  Joseph  Gossec  was  born,  at  Vergnies,  in 
Belgium,  Jan.  17,  1733;  and  sang,  as  a  Chorister, 
in  the  Cathedral  at  Antwerp,  until  1748.    In  1751, 


A.D.  1760.]    Gossec's    Messe  des  Morts,^'  415 


lie  came  to  Paris;  and,  in  1754,  produced  his  first 
Orchestral  Symphony.^  In  later  life,  he  wrote 
twenty-five  more  Symphonies ;  eleven  Operas  ;  in- 
cluding Les  Pecheurs,  [1766] ;  an  Oratorio,  La 
Nativite;  and  a  Messe  des  Morts,  [1760].  The  last 
two  pieces  owed  much  of  their  success  to  the  intro- 
duction of  a  second  Orchestra,  concealed  in  the 
distance.  In  1795,  Gossec  accepted  a  Professor- 
ship at  the  newly-founded  Conservatoire.  He  died, 
at  Passy,  Feb.  16,  1829. 

Daniel  Francois  Esprit  Auber  was  born,  at  Caen, 
in  1782,^  and  began  to  study  Music  at  a  very  early 
age,  though  very  irregularly,  until,  in  1811,  he  was 
fortunate  enough  to  attract  the  attention  of  Cheru- 
bini.  His  first  three  Operas  were  unsuccessful ; 
but,  in  1822,  he  allied  himself  with  the  popular 
librettist,  Eugene  Scribe,  and,  thenceforward,  his 
success  was  assured.  Though  (by  the  merest 
accident)  a  provincial  by  birth,  he  '  knew  his  Paris ' 
as  no  one  ever  learns  to  know  it  save  an  habitue  of 
the  avant'Scenes,  a  vieux  routier  de  la  haute  vie 
parisienne,  or  a  gamin  of  purest  pedigree.  And  he 
turned  his  learning  to  excellent  account.  He  knew 
how  to  accommodate  himself,  to  a  hair's  breadth, 
to  the  minutest  caprices  of  his  audience,  to  gauge 
its  temper,  and  to  secure  its  applause  with  absolute 

^  Haydn's  first  Symphony  was  composed  in  1759. 
2  According  to  another  account,  in  178  L 


4i6  Le  Pre  aux  Clercs.         [a.d.  1833. 

certainty ;  and,  to  his  experience  in  these  matters, 
aided  by  a  brilliant  imagination,  and  an  inexhaus- 
tible vein  of  catching  melody,  he  was  indebted  for  a 
popularity  which  continued  unabated  for  little  less 
than  fifty  years.  Yet,  so  little  did  he  really  care 
for  Art,  that  he  was  never  known  to  be  present  at  a 
performance  of  one  of  his  own  works.  After  his 
alliance  with  Scribe,  nearly  all  his  Operas  were 
successful;  but  Le  Magon,  [1825],  La  Muette  de 
Portici,  [1828],  Fra  Diavolo,  [1830],  Gustave  III., 
[1833],  Domino  Noir,  [1837],  Les  Diamants  de  la 
Gouronne,  [1841],  and  L'Enfant  jprodigue,  [1850]  ; 
far  exceeded  all  the  rest  in  popularity.  If  we 
may  trust  Fetis's  chronology,  Le  Beve  d' amour, 
[1869],  must  have  been  composed  when  he  was 
eighty-seven  years  of  age.  He  died,  at  Paris,  in 
1871. 

Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand  Herold,  born,  in  Paris, 
in  1791,  was  little  less  popular,  at  one  time,  than 
Auber,  and,  had  his  life  been  prolonged,  he  would 
probably  have  risen  still  higher  in  public  estimation. 
In  1812,  he  obtained  the  grand  prix  de  Borne,  at  the 
Conservatoire ;  and,  in  1815,  produced  his  first 
Opera,  Enrico  V.,  at  Naples.  His  first  French 
Opera,  Les  Bosieres,  was  well  received,  in  Paris,  in 
1817  ;  but  his  most  successful  works  were,  Zamjpa, 
[1831],  and  Le  Pre  aux  Glercs,  [1833],  the  last  of 
which  was  produced  a  few  weeks  only  before  the 


A.D.  1 799-1 862.]        Halivy,  417 

Composer's  111111111617  death,  which  took  place,  at 
Paris,  January  19,  1833. 

Adolphe  Charles  Adam,  born,  at  Paris,  In  1803, 
was  a  pupil  of  Boleldleu.  After  some  preliminary 
attempts  In  dramatic  composition,  he  made,  in  1835, 
an  immense  success  in  Le  Postilion  de  Longjiimeau, 
His  Ballets,  La  joUe  fille  de  Gand,  [1839],  and 
Giselle,  [1841],  were  also  very  popular;  and  he 
would  probably  have  been  still  more  successful,  but 
for  the  failure  of  a  theatrical  speculation,  which, 
ruined  by  the  Pevolution  of  1 848,  involved  him  in 
debts  to  the  liquidation  of  which  he  entirely  con- 
secrated the  labours  of  the  next  five  years  of  his 
hfe.    He  died,  suddenly,  at  Paris,  in  1856. 

Jacques  Francois  Fromental  Ehas  Halevy,  was 
born  in  Paris,  of  an  old  Hebrew  family,^  in  1799, 
and  studied  diligently,  under  Cherubini,  winning 
the  grand  jprix  de  Rome,  in  1819.  On  his  return  to 
Paris,  he  found  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  hear- 
ing ;  and  it  was  not  until  1827  that  his  first  Opera 
Comique,  L' Artisan,  was  produced  at  the  Theatre 
Feydeau.  But,  his  greatest  successes  date  from 
1835,  in  which  year  he  produced  his  masterpiece. 
La  Juive,  at  the  Academic,  and  was  almost  equally 
happy  in  a  little  Opera  Comique,  called  L' Eclair. 
La  Tempesta,  written,  in  Italian,  for  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  in  1850,  and  reproduced  at  the  Academic, 

^  The  family  name  is  said  to  have  been  Levy. 

E  e 


4i8 


Sacchini.       [a.d.  i  734-1 786. 


as  La  Temjpete,  in  the  following  year,  was  also  ex- 
ceedingly popular ;  and  Le  Juif  errant,  1852,  and 
La  Magicienne,  1858,  proved  well  worthy  of  their 
Composer's  reputation:  for,  Halevy  was  a  really 
conscientious  writer,  and  did  his  best  for  Art, 
though — doubtless  for  that  very  reason — he  was 
far  less  popular  than  either  Auber,  or  Herold.  He 
died,  at  Nice,  in  1862. 

Among  the  foreign  Composers  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  cultivation  of  French  Grand  Opera, 
and  Opera  Comique,  are  several  of  whom  we  have 
already  had  occasion  to  speak,  in  former  chapters. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  these,  Antonio  Maria 
Gasparo  Sacchini,  born  at  Pozzuoli,  in  1734,  was 
well  known,  both  in  Italy,  and  in  England,  before 
he  settled  in  Paris,  about  the  year  1784.  Under 
the  patronage  of  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  he  brought 
out  two  of  his  Italian  Operas,  Binaldo,  and  II  gran 
Gid,  under  the  French  titles  of  Benaiid,  and  Chimene  ; 
and  also  two  new  works,  Dardanus,  produced  in  1784, 
and  CEdijje  a  Coloiie,  which  was  set  aside,  at  Fon- 
tainebleau,  to  make  room  for  Lemoine's  Phedre. 
Sacchini  died,  from  the  disappointment  caused  by 
this  circumstance,  in  1786. 

Ferdinando  Paer,  born,  at  Parma,  in  1771,  and 
well  known  in  Italy,  Dresden,  and  Vienna,  by  his 
successful  Operas,  Camilla,  [1799],  Sargino,  [1803], 
and  Eleonora,  [1804],  settled,  in  1807,  at  Paris, 


A.D.  I  774-185 1.]  Spontini. 


419 


where  lie  produced  eight  Operas,  the  most  popular 
of  which  was,  Agnese,  [1811].  He  succeeded 
Spontini,  as  Director  of  the  Opera  Italien,  in  1812  ; 
and  died,  in  1839. 

Louis  Medermejer,  born,  at  Nyon,  in  1802,  com- 
posed several  works  for  the  Academic,  but  none  of 
them  received  the  recognition  fairly  due  to  their 
merits.    He  died,  at  Paris,  in  1861. 

Michele  Carafa  was  more  fortunate.  He  was 
born,  at  Naples,  in  1785;  studied,  at  Paris,  under 
Cherubini ;  forsook  his  profession,  in  order  to  join 
the  army ;  resumed  it,  after  the  fall  of  JN'apoleon 
Buonaparte;  composed  several  popular  Operas  in 
Italy ;  and,  in  1822,  settled  in  Paris,  where  he 
produced  Le  Solitaire,  La  Violette,  Masaniello,'^  and 
La  irrison    Edimbourg,  with  very  great  success. 

Of  Cherubini' s  rich  contributions  to  the  French 
School,  we  have  abeady  spoken,  in  a  former  chapter^ 
We  have  seen  Rossini,  though  far  from  attaining 
the  same  exalted  level,  doing  good  and  lasting  ser- 
vice, with  his  immortal  Gicillaume  Tell.  We  have 
now  to  speak  of  a  third  Italian  Composer,  to  whom 
the  French  Dramatic  School  was  indebted  for  a 
notable  impulse  in  the  right  direction. 

Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico  Spontini  was  born,  at 
Majolati,  in  1774;  and,  after  composing  some  unim- 
portant Operas,  in  Italy,  settled,  at  Paris,  in  1803. 

^ot  to  be  confounded  with  Aiiber's  Muette  de  Portici. 

E  e  2 


420 


La  Vestale.  [a.d.  1807. 


At  first,  he  was  by  no  means  well  received  in  the 
country  of  his  adoption  ;  but,  in  1807,  his  master- 
piece, La  Vestale,  was  produced,  at  the  Academic, 
with  brilliant  and  well-merited  success.  Spontini's 
next  Grand  Opera,  Fernand  Cortez,  was  received 
at  the  Academie,  in  1809,  wdth  a  display  of 
enthusiasm  at  least  as  great  as  that  which  had 
greeted  La  Vestale.  Yet  the  Composer,  who  had 
contracted  the  habit  of  altering  his  works,  even 
during  the  process  of  rehearsal,  to  an  extent  which 
sometimes  made  them  scarcely  recognisable,  was  by 
no  means  satisfied  with  his  new  Opera,  which  he 
entirely  reconstructed,  on  its  revival,  in  1817,  and 
again  remodelled,  at  Berlin,  in  1827.  Two  years 
after  the  production  of  Fernand  Cortez,  Spontini 
was  appointed  Director  of  the  Opera  Italien ;  but  he 
was  constantly  embroiled  with  the  management,  and 
did  not  long  remain  in  office.  His  third  Grand 
Opera,  Olympie,  produced  in  1819,  proved  a  less 
brilliant  success ;  in  fact,  it  may  almost  be  said  to 
have  failed.  This  was  a  bitter  disappointment  to 
Spontini,  who  considered  it  his  best  work :  but,  he 
soon  began,  as  usual,  to  remodel  it.  In  the  mean- 
time, he  accepted  a  permanent  engagement  as  Hof- 
kapellmeister,  to  King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III.,  at 
Berlin,  where  he  arrived  in  May,  1820,  and  at  once 
embroiled  himself  with  the  Intendant,  Count  Bruhl. 
On  the  14th  of  May,  1821,  Olympia,  in  its  revised 


A.D.  1819.]  Olympic.  421 

form,  and  translated  into  German  by  Hoffmann,  was 
produced,  with  triumphant  success,  at  the  Royal 
Opera  House.  Five  weeks  later,  on  the  18th  of 
June,  Weber  produced  Ber  Freischiltz  at  the  new 
Theatre.  The  success  of  this  immortal  work  was 
gall  and  bitterness  to  Spontini,  whose  jealous  tem- 
per could  brook  the  presence  of  no  possible  rival ; 
and  he  tried,  by  every  means  that  lay  within  his 
power,  to  crush  the  gifted  Composer,  whom  he  chose 
to  regard  as  his  antagonist.  Fortunately,  the  posi- 
tion of  Der  Freischiltz  was  unassailable.  But,  at  a 
later  period,  Spontini' s  machinations  were  brought 
to  bear,  with  fatal  effect,  not  only  upon  Euryanthe, 
and  Oheron,  but — as  we  have  already  seen — upon 
Mendelssohn's  Hochzeit  des  Gamacho,  and  Spohr's 
Jessonda.^ 

Spontini' s  next  two  Operas,  Nourmahal,  and 
AlcidoT,  were  of  slight  importance ;  but  Agnes  von 
Hohenstaufen,  produced  in  1829,  rose  fully  to  the 
level  of  its  three  great  predecessors.  Nevertheless, 
no  sooner  was  it  fairly  placed  upon  the  Stage  than 
the  Composer  began  to  remodel  it,  in  accordance 
with  his  invariable  custom ;  and  it  was  reproduced, 
in  its  new  form,  in  1837.  After  this,  Spontini  began 
many  new  works,  but  brought  none  of  them  to  com- 
pletion; and,  after  the  death  of  King  Friedrich 

^  It  is,  however,  only  fair  to  say  that  this  statement  has  been 
categorically  denied  by  Dr.  Philipp  Spitta,  of  Berlin. 


422  Meyerbeer.       [a.d.  i 791-1863. 

Willielm  III.,  in  1840,  his  conduct  became  so  tyran- 
nical and  outrageous,  that,  in  1842,  King  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  lY.  dismissed  him  from  his  office,  though 
he  forbore  to  deprive  him  either  of  his  title,  or  his 
full  salary.  He  returned  to  Paris,  in  1843 ;  but  his 
power  of  production  was  exhausted,  and  it  was 
almost  more  than  he  could  do  to  conduct  some 
occasional  performances  of  his  own  works.  In 
1848,  he  became  deaf;  and  removing  to  his  birth- 
place, Majolati,  died  there  Jan.  14,  1851. 

Spontini's  successor  at  Berlin  was  Giacomo  Meyer- 
beer, or,  as  he  was  called  in  his  youth,  Jakob  Meyer 
Beer.  For,  Meyerbeer  was  a  native  of  Berlin,  where 
he  was  born,  September  6,  1791,  of  a  wealthy 
Jewish  family,  named  Beer :  and  it  was  he  himself 
who  afterwards  Italianised  his  first  Christian  name 
into  Giacomo,  and  incorporated  the  second  with  the 
family  patronymic. 

Meyerbeer  studied,  in  company  with  Weber, 
under  the  kind  old  Abbe  Yogler  ;  and,  at  the  outset 
of  his  career,  devoted  himself,  with  success,  to  the 
composition  of  Italian  Operas,  after  the  manner  of 
Eossini.  The  last  of  these,  11  Grociato  in  Egitto, 
created  so  great  a  furore,  at  Venice,  in  1824,  that 
the  Composer  was  crowned  upon  the  Stage.  But, 
Meyerbeer  felt  that  he  was  wasting,  in  imitation, 
powers,  which,  rightly  used,  might  enable  him  to 
achieve  real  greatness  :  and,  accepting  an  invitation 


A.D.  183I.] 


Robert  le  Diable, 


423 


to  Paris,  in  1826,  he  devoted  liimself  to  a  long 
course  of  diligent  study,  whicli,  in  1831,  resulted  in 
the  production  of  his  first  Grand  Opera,  Eohert  le 
Diahle,  at  the  Academie.  This  gorgeous  Musical 
Drama,  the  interest  of  which  was  greatly  increased 
by  Scribe's  excellent  libretto,  met  with  a  most 
enthusiastic  reception ;  and  at  once  assured  Meyer- 
beer's position  in  Paris :  for,  in  spite  of  its  gloomy 
horror,  and  deeply  romantic  tendency,  it  was  essen- 
tially French,  in  character,  and  gave  a  strong  im- 
pulse to  the  national  Dramatic  School.  It  was 
followed,  in  1836,  by  Les  Huguenots,  sl  work  of  fully 
equal  merit,  though  destitute  of  the  supernatural 
element  which  lends  so  deep  an  interest  to  Robert, 
The  libretto  for  this  was  also  furnished  by  Scribe ; 
who,  after  its  completion,  furnished  Meyerbeer  with 
libretti  for  two  more  Grand  Operas,  L'Africaine,  and 
Le  Frophete.  Meyerbeer,  who  was  as  much  addicted 
to  the  adoption  of  afterthoughts  as  Spontini,  worked 
diligently,  for  a  time,  upon  L'Africaine ;  but  re- 
modelled it  so  many  times,  that  Scribe's  j)atience 
was  completely  tired  out  with  the  process  of  recon- 
struction. In  1843,  the  libretto  was  temporarily 
laid  aside,  in  favour  of  Le  Fropliete,  the  Music 
for  which  was  composed  somewhat  more  rapidly. 
In  the  meantime,  Meyerbeer  was  invited  to  Berlin, 
where  he  produced  Ein  Feldlager  in  Schlesien,  with 
great   success,  Madlle.    Jenny  Lind   taking  the 


424  Le  Prophete.  [a.d.  1849. 

principal  part.  Here,  also,  lie  wrote  tlie  Overture 
and  Incidental  Music  to  the  Drama  of  Struensee, 
Le  Propliete  was  not  produced  until  1849,  by  which 
time  it  had  undergone  innumerable  changes.  It 
did  not,  at  first,  produce  so  much  sensation  as  Les 
Huguenots;  but,  after  the  first  few  performances, 
its  merits  were  more  fairly  appreciated,  and  it  soon 
became  a  popular  favourite. 

Meyerbeer  next  distinguished  himself  as  a  Com- 
poser of  Opera  Comique,  in  which  he  earned  a 
reputation  as  great  as  that  he  had  so  long  enjoyed 
at  the  Academic.  L'Etoile  du  JSford,  produced  in 
1854,  was  based,  to  some  extent,  upon  Ein  Feld- 
lager  in  Schlesien,  and  contained  much  of  its  Music, 
but,  with  very  extensive  alterations.  It  was  followed, 
in  1859,  by  Dinorah,  ou  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel, 
Both  pieces  became  very  popular ;  but,  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  Grand  Opera  were  too  strong  to  be 
resisted,  and,  in  1861,  he  again  attacked  the  libretto 
of  L'Africaine,  and  again  reconstructed  the  whole 
work,  which  he  still  continued  to  re-touch,  after 
it  was  actually  put  into  rehearsal,  in  1863.  By 
this  time,  however,  his  health  was  completely  broken; 
and  he  died,  before  the  work  was  ready  for  per- 
formance, on  May  2,  1863.  The  production  of 
VAfricaine,  thus  sadly  postponed,  was  still  farther 
delayed,  for  various  reasons,  until  April  28,  1865, 
when  the  piece  was  performed,  at  the  Academic, 


A.D.  1865.] 


U  Africaine. 


425 


witli  pious  attention  to  tlie  minutest  scruples  of  tlie 
departed  Composer,  and,  with  very  great  success. 
In  fact,  it  is  in  no  respect  inferior  to  Meyerbeer's 
other  masterpieces,  and,  in  conjunction  with  them, 
reflects  a  glory  on  the  history  of  the  Academic  which 
will  be  long  ere  it  fades  away. 

^Notwithstanding  the  active  share  taken  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  French  School,  by  the  foreign  Com- 
posers whose  history  we  have  sketched  during  the 
course  of  our  present  chapter,  their  influence  was  never 
strong  enough  to  destroy  its  characteristic  nationality- 
Neither  Cherubini,  nor  Spontini,  nor  even  Rossini, 
wrote  Italian  Music  for  the  Academic ;  and,  when 
Meyerbeer,  a  German  by  birth,  and  a  thorough 
Italian  in  the  tone  of  his  early  works,  cast  in  his  lot 
with  French  Dramatic  Art,  he  forgot  his  old  style 
so  completely,  that  it  is  only  in  connection  with  the 
French  School  that  his  name  will  be  hereafter  re- 
membered. It  was  impossible  that  things  could 
have  been  ordered  in  any  other  way  than  this. 
Paris  knew  its  Grand  Opera,  audits  Opera Comiqae, 
an  fond;  and  would  brook  no  intei^ference  with 
either.  Those,  therefore,  who  wrote  for  Paris, 
well  knew,  that,  if  they  wished  to  obtain  a  hearing, 
they  must  conform  to  the  usages  of  the  School 
which  Paris  had  already  raised  to  a  very  high  level, 
before  their  arrival.  They  did  so  conform  :  and, 
without  losing  a  particle  of  their  own  individuality 


426  Bizet.  [a.d.  1838-1875. 

— for  their  genius  was  too  real  to  permit  the 
possibihty  of  that — they  succeeded  in  advancing  the 
School  of  their  adoption  to  a  point  of  excellence 
which  it  had  never  previously  reached. 

Happily  for  the  Academic,  the  line  of  its  greatest 
Composers  did  not  die  out  with  Meyerbeer ;  nor 
did  the  successes  of  the  Opera  Comique  terminate 
with  his  two  contributions  to  the  lighter  form  of 
Art. 

Georges  Bizet,  born  at  Paris,  in  1838,  and  edu- 
cated under  Halevy,  though  he  died  too  soon  for 
the  fulfilment  of  the  bright  hopes  to  which  his  early 
successes  gave  rise,  lived  long  enough  to  make 
himself  a  name,  and  to  do  good  work,  in  the  service 
of  the  Op6ra  Comique.  His  early  works  were  well 
received,  but  will  soon,  in  all  probability,  be  quite 
forgotten.  Not  so,  his  Carmen,  which  is  as  popular 
in  England,  and  even  in  Italy,  as  it  is  in  Paris.  It 
was  produced,  at  the  Opera  Comique,  March  3, 1875; 
and  the  Composer  died  suddenly,  on  the  3rd  of 
June,  in  the  same  year.  Like  Nicolai,  and  Goetz, 
he  lives  in  the  one  successful  Opera  he  had  time 
enough  to  produce. 

Scarcely  less  popular  than  the  well-known 
Opera  of  M.  Bizet  are  some  others  that  appeared 
almost  contemporaneously  with  it,  and  some  of  still 
later  date ;  as  M.  Jules  Bmile  Frederic  Massenet's 
Don  Cesar  de  Bazan,  [1872],  Le  Boi  de  Lahore, 


A.D.  1 803-1 869.]       Berlioz.  427 

[1877],  and  if ano??, ;  M.  Charles  Ambroise  Thomas' s 
Mignon,  [1866],  Eamlet,  [1868],  and  Frangoise  de 
Rimini,  [1882]  ;  M.  Charles  Canaille  Saint  Saens' 
Eenri  VIII. ;  and  very  many  others,  which,  since 
their  authors  are  happily  still  living,  and  actively 
engaged  in  the  cause  of  progress,  are  not  yet  legiti- 
mate subjects  for  the  pen  of  the  Historian.  Let 
us  turn  then,  from  these  popular  writers,  to  another 
Composer,  who  occupied  himself  with  work  of  a 
different  kind. 

While  Cherubini  and  Meyerbeer  were  labouring  so 
energetically  for  the  advancement  of  French  Dra- 
matic Music,  the  wild,  but  wonderfully  brilliant 
genius  of  Hector  Berlioz  was  bringing  a  very 
different  influence  to  bear  upon  the  contemporary 
development  of  Art  in  another  direction.  He  was 
born,  near  Grenoble,  in  1803 ;  and,  all  his  life  long, 
devoted  himself  to  what  he  conscientiously  believed 
to  be  the  highest  interests  of  Art.  But,  the  very 
quality  on  which  his  own  greatness  chiefly  depends, 
the  strange  originality  of  his  conceptions,  which  led 
him  into  paths  absolutely  untrodden  until  he  opened 
a  way  through  them  for  himself,  the  extraordinary 
independence  of  thought  which  persistently  ignored 
the  existence  of  all  laws  and  methods  and  systems 
whatsoever,  tended  more  than  any  other  circum- 
stance to  prevent  him  from  leaving  a  lasting  im- 
pression either   upon  Dramatic  or  Instrumental 


428  Benvenuto  Cellini,         [a.d.  1838. 

'Music.  He  belonged  to  no  School  whatever ;  and 
it  is  impossible  that  he  could  either  attract  disciples, 
or  leave  successors  to  cany  on  a  work  which  no  one 
had  ever  been  permitted  to  share  with  him.  His 
only  Opera,  Benvenuto  Cellini^  failed,  in  1838,  at 
the  Academic,  and,  in  1853,  at  Covent  Garden,  not 
from  any  inherent  fault  in  its  construction,  but, 
simply  because  he  himself  was  the  only  man  living, 
capable  of  fully  comprehending  and  sympathizing 
with  his  own  idea.  Among  his  other  works,  the 
most  striking,  and  also  the  most  successful,  were, 
the  Grande  Messe  des  Morts,  the  Grande  Symjohonie 
fiinebre  et  triomphale,  the  Symphony  (with  Viola 
ohhligata  throughout)  entitled  Harold  en  Italie,  the 
Te  Beum  for  three  Choirs,  the  Symphony  illustrating 
the  Tragedy  of  Romeo  et  Juliette,  and  La  Damnation 
de  Faust.  His  literary  productions  are  also  replete 
with  interest,  notwithstanding  the  violence  of  the 
language  in  which  his  opinions  are  sometimes  ex- 
pressed :  and  his  Traite  d' instrumentation  et  d^ orches- 
tration modernes  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  contri- 
butions to  the  technique  of  Composition  that  has 
ever  yet  been  given  to  the  public. 

Berlioz  died,  wholly  misunderstood,  and  at  war 
with  all  the  world,  in  1869.  The  works  we  have 
mentioned  are  more  frequently  performed,  now,  than 
they  were  during  his  lifetime,  and  very  much  more 
intelligently  appreciated;  we  may  therefore  hope 


A.D.  1885.]  Morsel  Vita.  429 

that  many  of  his  Compositions,  hitherto  almost  un- 
known, may  ere  long  receive,  both  from  French  and 
English  audiences,  a  fairer  and  more  dispassionate 
judgment  than  has  as  yet  been  accorded  to  them. 

The  process  of  forming  an  exhaustive  estimate  of 
the  merits  of  a  really  important  work  is  always  a 
slow  one.  Yet,  there  is  one  great  French  Composer, 
upon  many  of  whose  Compositions  the  world  has 
already  had  ample  time  to  pass  judgment — and 
actually  has  passed  judgment,  with  no  uncertain 
voice :  a  Composer  to  whose  genius  the  French 
School  is  mainly  indebted  for  the  high  position  it 
has  maintained,  since  the  death  of  those  who  had 
long  been  looked  upon  as  its  most  efficient  supporters, 
and  whose  earnestness  of  intention  has  been  the 
means  of  infusing  into  it  a  reality  which  is  not  likely 
to  be  soon  forgotten.  For  it  may  be  safely  said, 
that,  from  his  Messe  Solennelle  first  publicly  per- 
formed, under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Hullah,  in  1851, 
to  the  Mots  et  Vita  written  for,  and  first  sung  at, 
the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1885,  M.  Charles 
Francois  Gounod  has  never  given  to  the  world  one 
single  Composition,  great  or  small,  which  does  not 
bear  witness  to  the  earnestness  of  his  desire  to  do 
honour  to  the  Art  he  loves :  and,  in  the  presence  of 
power  like  his,  earnestness  means  a  great  deal,  and 
has  effected  a  great  deal.  The  list  of  his  works, 
already  published,  is  extensive,  including,  besides 


430         Mons,  Gounod s  Operas,  [a.d.  1851-1878. 

a  multitude  of  smaller  works,  eleven  complete 
Operas ;  viz.,  Saiopho,  [1851],  La  Nonne  sanglaiite, 
[1854],  Le  Meclecin  malgre  lui,  (Opera  Comique) 
[1858],  Faust,  [1859],  Philemon  et  Baucis,  [1860], 
La  Beine  de  Saba,  [1862],  Mireille,  [1864],  La 
Golombe,  [1866],  Romeo  et  Juliette,  [1867],  Cinq- 
Mars,  (Opera  Comique),  [1877],  and  Polyeucte, 
[1878];  tliree  Oratorios;  viz.,  Tohie,  The  Redemp- 
timi,  and  Mors  et  Vita — tlie  two  last  composed 
for  the  Birmingham  Festivals  of  1882,  and  1885 ; 
besides  a  Stabat  Mater,  three  Masses,  a  De  pro- 
fundis,  an  Ave  verum,  a  Sicut  cervus,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  beautiful  Songs,  both  sacred  and  secular. 
The  catalogue  is  a  long  one.  Let  us  hope  that  it 
may  grow  very  much  longer,  before  the  day  on 
which  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  French 
School  considers  himself  entitled  to  repose  upon 
his  laurels. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


THE  ENGLISH  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURl'. 

We  have  seen  the  Enghsh  School  soaring,  in  the 
18th  century,  to  a  level  to  which  the  genius  of 
Handel  alone  could  have  raised  it.    We  have  seen 
its  best  Masters,  conscientiously  striving,  after  the 
death  of  the  *  bold  Briareus,'  to  sustain  the  credit 
of  the  distinctive  form  of  Cathedral  Music  which 
had  been  its  special  glory  since  the  epoch  of  the 
Restoration :  cultivating  an  equally  distinctive  School 
of  genuine  English  Opera,  which,  if  designed  on  less 
ambitious  lines  than  the  German  Sing  spiel,  or  the 
French  Opera  comique,  was  less  subversive  of  drama- 
tic propriety  than  either,  and  more  artistic,  both  in 
intention,  and  actual  form,  than  its  nearer  relative, 
the  Vaudeville :  inventing,  and  bringing  to  absolute 
perfection,  the  characteristic  and   truly  national 
form  of  Part- Song  known  as  the  Glee :  and,  while 
awaiting,  in  vain,  the  advent  of  a  leader  gifted  with 
undeniable  genius,  doing  their  best  to  secure  for  it 
a  respectable  position  in  the  history  of  Art.  We 


432 


Sir  John  Goss.    [a.d.  1800- 1884. 


have  watched  its  progress,  with  interest,  from  the 
first  indication  of  its  existence,  under  the  leadership 
of  John  of  Fornsete,  in  1226,  through  century  after 
century  of  changing  fortunes  ;  and  we  have  now  to 
trace  its  annals  from  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  to  the  present  day. 

It  must  be  confessed,  that  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  Drs.  Croft,  and  Greene,  and  Boyce,  and 
Jonathan  Battishill,  did  not  produce  Cathedral 
Music  worthy  to  be  compared  with  that  bequeathed  to 
us  by  their  illustrious  predecessors.  On  the  other 
hand,  nearly  all  the  best  Glees  we  possess  were 
written  at  a  period  subsequent  to  that  at  which  the 
character  of  our  Cathedral  Music  began  to  decline  ; 
the  style,  so  well  cultivated,  in  the  18th  century,  by 
Jonathan  Battishill,  [1738 — 1801],  Dr.  Benjamin 
Cooke,  [1734—1793],  Stephen  Paxton,  [Oh.  1787], 
Luffman  Atterbury,  [Oh.  1796],  Garrett  Colley  Wel- 
lesley,  First  Earl  of  Morning  ton — the  father  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington— [1735— 1781],  John  Danby, 
[1757—1798],  and  John  Hindle,  [1761—1796], 
being  carried,  with  equal  success,  into  the  19th, 
by  Richard  John  Samuel  Stevens,  [1757 — 1837], 
Samuel  Webbe,  [1740—1816],  Dr.  John  Wall  Call- 
cott,  [1766—1821],  Thomas  Attwood,  [1767— 1838], 
Reginald  Spofforth,  [1768—1827],  William  Horsley, 
[1774_1858],  and  Sir  John  Goss,  [1800—1880]. 
Happily,  the  universally-beloved  Master  whose  name 


A.D.  I  764-1826.]    MicJicrl  Kelly. 


433 


we  have  last  mentioned  is  not,  by  any  means,  the 
last  representative  of  the  style,  which  we  may  con- 
fidently hope  will  not  be  allowed  to  die  out,  now 
that  its  charm  is  so  well  understood,  and  so  highly 
valued. 

John  Field  [1782—1837]  was  a  pupil  of  Clementi, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  Pianists  of  his  time.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  greatest  Composers  for  his 
instrument ;  and  one  of  the  first  who  introduced 
the  element  of  Romanticism  into  Piano-forte  Music. 
His  best  works  are,  seven  Concertos^  and  a  volume 
of  Nocturnes,  which  Liszt  and  Chopin  played,  with 
untiring  admiration. 

Between  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  the 

opening  years  of  the  19th,  the  English  School  of 

Dramatic  Music  maintained  very  nearly  the  same 

persistent  level.    The  style  was  established,  and  the 

public  was  too  well  satisfied  with  it  either  to  expect, 

or  to  desire,  that  it  should  advance.    Michael  Kellv, 

[1764 — 1826],  though  he  had  taken  a  prominent 

part  in  the  first  performance  of  Figaro,  at  Vienna, 

under  the  direction  of  Mozart  himself,  in  1786,^  was 

not  a  step  forwarder,  when  he  produced  The  Castle 

^  See  Kelly's  ^Reminiscences^  [Lond.  1826.  2  vols.  8vo.]; 
a  delightful  series  of  life-like  descriptions,  edited  by  Theodore 
Hook.  Kelly  describes  the  first  performance  of  Figaro  as  a 
triumph ;  yet,  Mozart's  share  of  the  proceeds — the  profits  of  the 
third  night's  representation — was  so  contemptible,  that  he  deter- 
mined never  to  bring  out  another  Opera  in  Vienna. 

r  f 


434 


John  Braham.    [a.d.  i  774-1856. 


Sjpedre,  in  1797,  and  Bluebeard,  in  1798,  tlian  John 
Frederick  Lampe,  whose  famous  Opera,  The  Dragon 
of  Wanf.ley,  was  received,  in  1737,  with  so  much 
enthusiasm,  that  even  Handel  himself  openly  ex- 
pressed the  pleasure  he  felt  in  listening  to  it.  Much 
of  their  Music,  chronologically  separated  by  a  gap  of 
sixty  years,  might  be  introduced  into  a  still  later 
work,  by  Shield,  or  Davy,  without  exciting  a  sus- 
picion of  incongruity.  Yet  it  is  excellent  Music, 
thoroughly  artistic,  free  from  all  taint  of  vulgarity, 
and,  in  every  important  characteristic,  superior  to 
nine-tenths  of  that  to  which  we  are  expected  to 
listen  in  the  lighter  pieces  of  the  present  day,  either 
in  England,  or  on  the  Continent. 

This  then,  was  the  condition  in  which  the  greatest 
of  English  Tenors,  John  Braham,  [1774—1856], 
found  our  national  School  of  Dramatic  Music,  when 
he  first  began  to  write  in  connection  with  it,  in 
1801,  composing  all  the  Songs  for  his  own  part, 
with  due  attention  to  the  claims  of  his  magnificent 
voice,  but  doing  little  for  the  general  advancement 
of  the  style.  The  most  popular  of  his  numerous 
pieces  were.  The  Oabinet,  [1801],  The  English  Fleet, 
[1802],  Thirty  Thousand,  [1804],  and  The  DeviVs 
Bridge,  [1812]. 

Very  different  was  the  influence  of  Sir  Henry 
Rowley  Bishop,  [1786 — 1855],  a  learned  and  accom- 
plished Musician,  to  whose  refined  taste,  and  intimate 


A.D.  I  786-1 855. J    Sir  Henry  BisJiop. 


435 


acquaintance  Tritli  tlie  capabilities  of  the  Voice,  the 
Orchestra,  and  the  Stage,  the  English  Musical 
Drama  is  verj  deeply  indebted  indeed.  After  a 
transient  success,  in  1809,  with  Tlie  Circassian  Bride, 
the  performance  of  which  was  interrupted,  after 
the  first  night,  bv  the  burning  of  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  Bishop  fairly  secured  his  reputation  by 
The  Knight  of  Snoicdon,  produced,  in  the  newly 
rebuilt  Theatre,  in  1811.  This  was  his  eleventh 
dramatic  work ;  and  it  was  followed,  within  the 
space  of  fifteen  years,  by  more  than  sixty  others, 
many  of  which,  however,  were  adaptations.  His 
most  popular  works,  up  to  this  time,  were,  The  Miller 
and  his  Men,  [1813],  Guy  Mannering,  [1816],  The 
Slave,  [1816],  The  Law  of  Java,  [1822],  and  Clari, 
[1823].  In  1826,  the  manager  of  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  was  rash  enough  to  produce  his  Aladdin,  in 
open  opposition  to  Weber's  Oheron,  then  just  pro- 
duced at  Covent  Garden  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
it  failed  :  but  he  wrote  sixteen  more  pieces  for  the 
Theatre,  between  this  year  and  1841,  when  his  last 
dramatic  work,  The  Fortunate  Isles,  was  produced, 
at  Cogent  Garden,  in  honour  of  Her  Majesty's 
Wedding. 

Bishop's  Operas  were  far  more  than  mere  collec- 
tions of  Songs.  His  Concerted  Movements  show 
the  hand  of  a  consummate  Master,  and  are  always 
beautifully  written.  Blow,  gentle  gales,  (in  The  Slave), 

F  f  2 


436 


MichcEl  Balfe.    [a.d.  i  808-1 870. 


The  Chough  and  Crow,  (in  Guy  Manuermg),  When  the 
wind  blows,  (in  The  Miller  and  his  Men),  and  Myn- 
heer van  Biinck,  (in  The  Law  of  Java),  will  never  fail 
to  please,  by  tlieir  inherent  beauty :  but,  other 
pieces  are  not  wanting,  in  which  the  dramatic 
interest  is  very  forcibly  maintained,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  Finale  to  the  First  Act  of  Guy  Mannering, 
{The  Fox  jumped  over  the  Parson's  gate),  in  which 
the  comic  and  pathetic  elements  are  alternately 
brought  into  play  with  truly  masterly  power. 

Bishop's  most  popular  successor  was  Michael 
William  Balfe^  [1808 — 1870],  a  less  learned  and  less 
earnest  Musician,  but  a  very  prolific  Composer,  and 
one  whose  works — not  always  his  best  ones — are 
still  in  great  favour  with  the  public.  He  first 
assured  his  reputation  by  producing  the  Siege  of 
Rochelle^  at  Drury  Lane,  in  1835.  This  was  followed, 
in  1836,  by  The  Maid  of  Artois,  in  which  Mad. 
Malibran  achieved  an  immense  success.  In  1838, 
he  wrote  an  Italian  Opera,  Falstaff^  for  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre.  Among  his  best  works  are  two  which 
he  wrote  for  the  Opera  Oomique  :  Le  Puits  d^ Amour, 
(Eng.  Geraldine),  and,  Les  guatre  fils  d'Aymon,  (Eng. 
The  Castle  of  Aymon).  But  these  were  never  so 
popular  as  The  Bohemian  Girl,  [1843],  The  Daughter 
of  Saint  Mark,  [1844],  The  Enchantress,  [1845],  The 
Maid  of  Honour,  [1847],  and  Satanella,  [1858]. 
These  works  were  all  written  with  an  evident  desire 


A.D.  1786-1849.]     Charles  Horn. 


437 


to  secure  the  applause  of  tlie  public,  at  any  cost ; 
but,  the  real  merit  of  Balfe's  career  lay  in  his  en- 
deavour to  assimilate  the  form  of  the  English  Ballad 
Opera  more  closely  to  that  of  the  true  Dramma  pet- 
la  music  a  i  by  substituting  Music  of  a  dramatic  cha- 
racter for  the  objectionable  Dialogue. 

Contemporary  with  Balfe,  during  a  portion  of 
his  career,  was  William  Michael  Eooke,  [1794 — 
1847],  whose  first  Opera,  Amelie,  or  The  Love  Test, 
was  received  with  great  favour,  in  1837,  and  fol- 
lowed, in  1839,  by  an  equally  meritorious  work, 
entitled  Henrique,  which  failed  to  retain  its  place 
on  the  Stage,  through  a  miserable  theatrical  cabal. 

Charles  Edward  Horn  [1786—1849]  was  one  of 
the  best  Composers  of  pure  English  Opera,  after 
Dibdin  and  Shield,  upon  whose  principles  he  con- 
tinued to  write,  though  he  lived  so  far  into  the 
present  century.  His  best  Operas  were  Godolphin, 
[1813],  The  Ninth  Statue,  [1814],  and  Dirce,  [1821]. 
In  later  life,  he  wrote  two  Oratorios,  The  Remission 
of  Sin,  and  Satan,  [1845].  Among  his  charming 
Songs,  and  Duets,  there  are  some — such  as  Cherry 
rijoe,  and  /  hioio  a  Bank — which  will  never  cease  to 
be  popular. 

To  John  Barnett,  English  Opera  owes  a  much 
deeper  debt  of  gratitude.  In  The  Mountain  Sylph, 
first  performed,  at  the  Lyceum,  in  1834,  we  find, 
for  the  first  time  since  the  production  of  Arne's 


438 


Sir  J tilius  Benedict,  [a.d.  i 804-1 885. 


Artaxerxes,  a  real  English  Musical  Drama,  founded 
upon  true  aesthetic  principles,  and  depending,  for 
its  interest,  upon  the  employment  of  highly  dra- 
matic Music,  charming  and  graceful  throughout, 
yet  always  lending  itself  to  the  development 
of  the  Scene  in  which  it  is  introduced.  Fair 
Bosamond,  produced,  at  Drury  Lane,  in  1837,  was 
less  successful;  but,  in  1838,  Farindli^roYed  in  no 
respect  inferior  to  The  Mountain  Sylph,  though  an 
unfortunate  theatrical  speculation  prevented  the 
Composer  from  following  up  his  success. 

John  Liphot  Hatton's  Pascal  Bruno,  though  pro- 
duced with  success,  at  Yienna,  in  1844,  has  never 
been  heard  in  English ;  nevertheless,  its  Music  is 
of  a  very  high  order  indeed,  as  is  that  of  the  same 
Composer's  Hezelciah,  an  Oratorio  produced  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  in  1877. 

Among  the  best  ComjDOsitions  of  this  period  must 
be  reckoned  those  of  the  late  accomplished  and 
universally  beloved  Sir  Julius  Benedict,  [1804 — 
1885]  who,  after  studying  with  Weber,  during  the 
most  productive  years  of  that  great  Composer's 
career^  settled  in  England,  and  produced  his  first 
English  Opera,  The  Gypsi/s  Warning,  in  1838.  The 
Brides  of  Venice,  [1844]  and  The  Crusaders,  were 
fully  equal  to  the  earlier  work ;  and,  in  1862,  The 
Lily  of  Killarney  proved  even  more  attractive. 
Among  Sir  Julius's  most  important  Choral  Com- 


A.D.  1866.  1870.]  S.  Cecilia.        Peter,  439 

positions  are,  his  two  Oratorios,  Saint  Cecilia, 
[1866],  and  Saint  Peter,  [1870].  He  has  also  left 
us  some  charming  Cantatas,  two  Symphonies,  and 
numerous  smaller  works. 

In  his  first  successful  Opera,  Maritana,  [1845], 
Vincent  Wallace  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  risen 
above  the  then  extravagantly  popular  Bohemian 
Girl;  but  Lurline,  [1860],  contains  some  ingenious 
combinations  of  very  dramatic  character.  Nearly 
contemporary  with  the  Operas  of  Wallace  were. 
Loretta,  by  Louis  Henry  Lavenu,  [1818 — 1859]  ; 
The  Night  Dancers,  by  Edward  James  Loder,  [1813 
— 1865]  ;  The  Regicide,  by  Charles  Lucas  ;  Bertha, 
by  Henry  Smart,  [1813 — 1879],  who  also  composed 
some  charming  Cantatas,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
Organ  Music  of  a  very  high  order  ;  Buy  Bias,  by 
Howard  Glover,  [1819 — 1875];  Leila,  and  Contarini, 
by  Henry  Hugo  Pierson,  [1815—1873]  ;  Maleh  Adel, 
and  Don  Carlos,  by  Sir  Michael  Costa,  [1810—1883]  ; 
and  very  many  more,  which  we  liave  not  space  to 
particularise. 

Though  English  Composers  of  Sacred  Music  pro- 
duced few  works  of  any  great  importance,  during 
the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  they  were  not 
altogether  idle.  After  the  revival  of  Dr.  Arne's 
Judith,  and  the  production  of  The  Redemption, 
Jehoshaphat,  Baradise  Lost,  and  a  long  list  of  similar 
works,  by  John  Christopher  Smith,  [1712 — 1795], 


440  Sir  Geo rge  Smart,  [a.d.  1776-1867. 

Handel's  faitliful  friend  and  amanuensis,  no  Oratorio 
of  any  real  interest  appeared,  until  1812,  wlien  Dr. 
William  Crotch,  [1775 — 1847],  composed  his  Tales- 
tine,  a  work  of  very  great  merit.  About  the  same 
time,  William  E-ussell,  [1777 — 1813],  Organist  at  the 
Foundling  Hospital,  composed  The  Redemption  of 
Israel,  and  Job,  for  the  Caecilian  Society,  for  which 
his  successor,  John  Nightingale,  furnished  pieces  of 
the  same  kind.  Though  never  published,  these 
works  were  frequently  sung  at  the  Caecilian  Society's 
semi-private  Concerts ;  and  the  association  did 
good  service  to  Art,  by  the  continual  performance 
of  the  Oratorios  of  Handel,  and  Haydn,  at  a  period 
at  which  they  could  be  very  rarely  heard  elsewhere. 
It  is,  indeed,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  the 
Caecilian  Society,  the  periodical  performances  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  Festivals  of  '  The  Three 
Choirs,'  the  provincial  musical  meetings,  and  the 
admirably  constituted  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
that  the  traditions  connected  with  the  performance 
of  Handel's  Oratorios  have  never  been  forgotten, 
in  this  country.  Sir  George  Smart,  [1776 — 1867], 
by  whom  so  many  of  the  most  important  Festivals 
were  conducted,  received  these  traditions,  in  the 
direct  line  of  transmission,  through  Joah  Bates, 
[1740 — 1799],  who  had  heard  Handel  conduct  his 
own  Oratorios,  and  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
great  Master's  method  of  accompanying,  as  well  as 


A .  D .  J  8 1  o- 1 8 8 3 .  ]  Sir  Michcel  Costa. 


441 


with  his  customary  tem^i^  and  the  peculiar  effects 
and  forms  of  expression  he  was  wont  to  introduce. 
Unhappily,  these  traditions  are,  at  the  present 
moment,  in  great  danger  of  dying  out :  for,  though 
many  well-known  vocal  and  instrumental  performers 
who  learned  them  from  Sir  George  Smart  himself  are 
still  living,  and  are  quite  capable  of  transmitting 
them  to  posterity,  their  testimony  carries  less 
weight  with  it  than  the  practice  of  a  more  recent 
period. 

The  almost  unexampled  popularity  of  Mendels- 
sohn, after  his  first  two  visits  to  this  country,  un- 
doubtedly deterred  many  English  Musicians  from 
trying  their  strength  in  Oratorio.  There  were,  how- 
ever, some  bold  exceptions  to  the  rule.  Henry  Hugo 
Pierson,  [1815 — 1873],  produced  his  Jerusalem,  in 
1852.  Sir  Michael  Costa's  Eli  was  received,  with 
enthusiasm,  at  the  Birmingham  Festival,  in  1855, 
and  his  second  Oratorio,  Naaman,  was  equally  suc- 
cessful, in  1864.  Charles  Edward  Horsley,  [1822— 
1876],  the  son  of  the  veteran  Glee-Composer,  wrote 
three  Oratorios,  entitled  David,  Joseph,  and  Gideon, 
the  last  of  which  was  produced  in  1860.  Mr.  Otto 
Goldschmidt  conducted  the  first  performance  of  his 
Oratorio,  Buth,  at  the  Hereford  Festival,  in  1867. 
Sir  Frederick  Ouseley  composed  his  S.  Folycarp,  in 
1854,  and  Hagar,  in  1873.  Mr.  Henry  Leslie  pro- 
duced his  Immanuel,  in  1853,  and  Judith,  in  1858 ; 


442      Sir  PV,  Ster^idale  Bennett.  [ a. d .  1 8 1 6- 1 8  7 5 . 

and  Mr.  W.  G.  Cusins  composed  liis  Gideon^  for  the 
Gloucester  Festival,  in  1871. 

For  many  years  past,  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
produce  new  Oratorios,  either  at  the  meetings  of 
'  The  Three  Choirs  ' — Gloucester,  Worcester,  and 
Hereford — or,  at  the  great  triennial  Festivals  held 
at  Birmingham,  Norwich,  and  other  large  provincial 
towns.  It  was  for  Birmingham  that  Mendelssohn 
composed  his  Mijah^  and  Gounod,  his  Redemption, 
and  Mors  et  Vita;  and,  at  Birmingham,  in  1867, 
was  produced  an  Oratorio  by  a  Composer  whose 
genius  demands  more  than  a  passing  notice. 

Sir  William  Sterndale  Bennett  was  born,  at  Shef- 
field, April  13,  1816 ;  and  educated,  first,  as  a  Cho- 
rister, at  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  and 
afterwards,  under  Dr.  Crotch,  and  Mr.  Cipriani  Potter, 
at  the  Royal  Academy,  in  London.  His  extraor- 
dinary talent  was  evident,  from  the  first ;  and  when, 
in  1833,  he  played  his  First  Concerto,  in  D  Minor, 
(Op.  1),  at  the  'Prize  Concert'  of  the  Academy, 
Mendelssohn,  then  on  his  fourth  visit  to  London, 
expressed  his  admiration  both  of  the  Composition, 
and  the  performance,  with  a  warmth  which  formed 
a  fitting  introduction  to  the  life-long  friendship  that 
afterwards  formed  so  firm  a  bond  of  union  between 
the  two  great  Artists.^ 

-  It  is  not  true  that  Bennett  was  a  pupil  of  Mendelssohn.  They 
were  friends  ;  but  nothing  more.    The  strongly-marked  difference 


A.D.  1S36.] 


The  Naiades. 


443 


Bennett  composed  his  Third  Concerto  in  G  Minor, 
(Op.  9),  and  his  Overture  to  Parisina,  in  1834,  and 
completed  his  Overture  to  The  Naiades  in  1836. 
He  then  visited  Germany ;  reaching  Diisseldorf  in 
time  to  be  present  at  the  first  performance  of  Men- 
delssohn's S.  Paul;  and  afterwards  passing  on  to 
Leipzig,  where  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Gewandhaus  Concerts,  during  the  winter  of  1836-7, 
in  his  own  Third  Concerto,  and  also  produced  the 
two  Overtures  already  mentioned,  and  some  of  his 
earlier  works,  with  a  success  quite  exceptional,  in 
the  presence  of  the  most  severely  critical  audience 
in  Europe.  In  truth,  the  year  he  spent  in  Germany 
was  perhaps  the  most  brilliant  in  his  artistic  career. 
Notwithstanding  the  presence  of  Mendelssohn,  he 
was  idolised  by  the  Leipzigers,  encouraged  by  the 
enthusiastic  admiration  of  Schumann  and  his  fellow 
critics,  and  so  thoroughly  appreciated,  that,  on  his 
second  visit,  during  the  Gewandhaus  Season  of 
1840-1,  he  was  received  with  open  arms,  and  made 
as  great  a  success  with  his  Overture  to  The  Wood- 
Nymjohs,  his  Caprice  in  for  Pianoforte  and  Or- 
chestra, and  his  Concerto  in  F  Minor,  as  he  had 
already  done  with  his  earlier  works. ^ 

in  their  styles  of  composition  ought,  alone,  to  suffice  for  the  correc- 
tion of  this  prevalent  mistake,  which  the  author  is  able  posi4;ively 
to  contradict. 

^  The  writer  furnishes  these  particulars  on  the  authority  of 


444 


The  Bach  Society. 


[a.d.  1849. 


After  his  return  to  England,  and  his  marriage,  in 
1844,  Bennett  devoted  himself,  with  great  success, 
to  teaching ;  but  did  not  cease,  either  to  compose, 
or  to  labour  for  the  honour  of  Art.  In  1849,  he 
founded  the  Bach  Society,*  and  was  the  first  to 
introduce  a  performance  of  the  Passion,  according  to 
S,  Mattheiv,  in  England.  In  1853,  he  declined  the 
proffered  appointment  of  Conductor  of  the  Gewand- 
haus  Concerts ;  but  he  accepted  a  similar  offer  from 
the  Philharmonic  Society,  in  1856,  in  which  year  he 
was  also  elected  Professor  of  Music  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge.  He  conducted  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts  until  1866,  when  he  resigned  his  appoint- 
ment, in  consequence  of  his  election  as  Principal  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

In  1871,  Sir  Sterndale  Bennett  received  from  Her 
Majesty  the  honour  of  Knighthood,  in  recognition  of 
his  valuable  services  to  Art;  but  he  enjoyed  the 
distinction  but  a  very  few  years.  On  Feb.  1,  1875, 
he  passed  away  from  among  us :  and,  a  week  later,  his 
remains  were  laid  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  presence 
of  an  immense  concourse  of  devoted  friends  and 
admirers,  to  many  of  whom  he  had  been  endeared 

information  collected  in  Leipzig,  while  the  memory  of  the  events 
was  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  those  who  had  witnessed 
them. 

^  Xot  to  be  confounded  with  the  Bach  Choir,  founded,  in  1875, 
by  Mr.  Otto  Goldschmidt. 


A.D.  1867.]     The  Woma'fi  of  Samaria. 


445 


alike,  bj  liis  amiable  qualities,  and  his  transcendent 
genius. 

Among  Sir  Sterndale  Bennett's  later  works,  the 
most  important  were,  his  Cantata,  Tlie  May  Queen, 
[1858],  his  Overture  to  Paradise  and  the  Peri, 
[1862],  his  Oratorio,  The  Woman  of  Samaria,  [1867], 
his  Symjyhony  in  G  Minor,  and  his  Piano-forte 
Sonata,  The  Maid  of  Orleans.  These,  however, 
represent  but  a  few  items  culled  from  the  compre- 
hensive catalogue,  which  is  especially  rich  in  Piano- 
forte Pieces,  of  the  highest  interest  and  beauty. 

With  this  brief  notice  of  the  work  effected  by  Sir 
Sterndale  Bennett  we  may  fairly  conclude  our  pre- 
sent chapter.  All  critics  are  agreed,  that,  since  the 
time  of  Henry  Purcell,  no  Englishman  hy  hirth  has 
attained  so  high  a  position  in  the  English  School 
as  he,  or  contributed  so  largely  to  its  advancement. 
His  genius  was  one  which  would  have  figured  pro- 
minently in  the  Art-history  of  any  country,  at  any 
period ;  and  it  may  safely  be  said  that  he  never 
produced  one  single  Composition  unworthy  of  his 
artistic  position.  Attached,  both  by  education,  and 
conviction,  to  the  pure  Classical  School,  he  hesitated 
not  to  make  free  use  of  the  elements  of  Imagination, 
and  Romanticism,  regarding  these  as  lawful  means 
for  the  expression  of  a  high  and  laudable  intention : 
and  hence  it  is,  that  his  conceptions  are  no  less 
interesting,  and  attractive,  in  their  poetical  aspect. 


44^  Hope  f 07'  the  Future,        [a.d.  1885. 

than  pure  and  graceful  in  tlieir  teclinical  arrange- 
ment, or  symmetrical  in  the  rare  perfection  of  their 
external  forms.  He  has  been  characterised  as  the 
last  representative  of  Classical  Form  in  England : 
and  there  are  not  wanting  many  who  tell  us  that 
Classical  Form  will  never  again  find  a  representative, 
either  in  England,  or  elsewhere.  We  cannot  believe 
this.  That  the  light  of  a  new  dispensation  has 
dawned  upon  us,  no  one  can  doubt :  but,  the  secrets 
of  its  mysterious  future  are,  as  yet,  absolutely  im- 
penetrable. One  thing  only  is  certain.  Whatever 
may  be  in  store  for  the  Art  of  the  coming  epoch, 
that  which  was  good,  and  true,  in  older  dispensations, 
will  not  be  suffered  to  pass  away — for,  the  Good, 
and  the  True,  and  the  Beautiful,  in  Art,  are  im- 
mortal. We  cannot  say,  as  the  Sphinx  whispered 
to  Isaac  Laquedem  before  the  Tomb  of  Cleopatra, 
'  Le  vieux  monde  est  mort'  But,  those  must  be 
very  blind,  who  fail  to  see  that  a  new  world  is  open- 
ing before  us  :  and  we  have,  as  yet,  no  evidence  to 
bring  forward,  in  proof  that  it  will  not  rest  upon 
the  firm  foundations  of  the  old  one. 


END  OF  BOOK  THE  FIFTH. 


BOOK  THE  SIXTH. 


THE     PRESENT     CONDITION  OP 

MUSIC,  AND  ITS  PROBABLE 
INFLUENCE  UPON  THE  FUTURE. 


CHAPTER  XXXYI. 


THE  NEW  WORLD. 

We  have  already  said,  tliat  it  forms  no  part  of  our 
present  design  to  describe,  in  detail,  tlie  works  of 
living  Composers.  The  only  legitimate  domain  of  the 
historian  is.  The  Past.  It  is  the  manifest  duty  of  the 
critical  contributor  to  an  Art-Journal,  or  the  editor 
of  an  Encyclopedia  designed  solely  to  serve  as  a 
book  of  reference,  to  record  the  first  appearance  of 
every  rising  Artist,  and  to  judge  his  work  as  fairly 
as  may  be,  on  its  first  presentation  to  the  world. 
But,  these  things  do  not  fall  within  the  province  of 
the  historian,  until  the  world  has  had  time  to  pro- 
nounce a  formal  judgment  upon  them.  Until  then, 
their  true  significance  in  the  history  of  Art  cannot 
possibly  be  ascertained.  The  judgment  passed 
upon  Robert  Schumann  by  a  powerful  body  of  con- 
temporary reviewers "  has,  since  his  untimely  death, 
been  triumphantly  reversed.  There  are  critics  who 
tell  us  that  the  right  time  for  passing  a  final  judg- 


450    Works  by  Living  Cornposcj^s.  [19T11  Century. 


ment  on  the  later  works  of  Beetlioven  lias  not  yet 
arrived.  And,  if  these  things  be  so,  how  shall  the 
historian  venture  to  discuss  the  comparative  merits 
of  works  which  many  of  his  readers  have  not  yet  had 
time  to  hear,  with  the  frankness  with  which  they 
will  very  properly  be  discussed,  when  the  present 
generation  shall  have  passed  away  ? 

But,  even  the  most  cautious  historian,  in  taking  a 
general  survey  of  the  condition  of  Art,  at  the 
moment  his  chronicle  closes,  may  fairly  mention  the 
names  of  those  to  whom  the  world  most  confidently 
looks  for  its  future  advancement,  and  the  titles  of 
their  most  important  Compositions.  And  this 
we  now  propose  to  do ;  inserting  the  names, 
for  the  sake  of  convenience,  in  the  form  of  a  foot- 
note. Happily,  for  Art,  the  list  is  a  very  long  one. 
Unhappily  for  ourselves,  it  is  so  long  that  w^e  cannot 
afford  space  for  the  tenth  part  of  it,  and  must  there- 
fore perforce  confine  ourselves  to  the  Composers 
and  Compositions  most  prominently  brought  before 
the  public.^ 

When  reviewing  the  prospects  of  Art,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  we  found  that, 

1  Here  follow  the  titles  of  a  few  of  the  most  important  works 
given  to  the  world,  since  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  by  Com- 
posers who  are  still  living,  either  on  the  Continent,  or  in  this 
country.  The  names  marked  with  a  Cross  {^)  are  those  of  Com- 
posers who  have  passed  away  from  among  us,  since  the  materials 
for  this  work  were  first  collected. 


1 9TH  Century.]  Works  by  Living  Composers,  451 


thougli  the  great  giants  were  no  more,  there  were 
many  men  of  real  genius  in  the  field,  fighting  man- 

WoEKS  BY  Continental  Composees. 

Herr  J.  Brahms.    Deutsche  Requiem ;  Gesang  der  Parzen,  (Cantata) ; 
SchicksalsUed,  (do.)  ;  Rinaldo,  (do.)  ;  TriumpTilied,  (do.) ;  Marienlieder 
Psalm  xiii. ;  Symphonies  i. — iii. ;  &c.,  &c. 

Herr  Max  Bruch.  Lorely,  (Opera) ;  Odysseus^  (Cantata) ;  Salamis,  (do.)  ; 
Frithof-saga,  (do.) ;  Schbn  Mien,  (do.) ;  &c.,  &c. 

Herr  Anton  Dvorak.    Stahat  Mater  ;  The  Spectre's  Bride,  (Cantata),  &c. 

Herr  Niels  W.  Gade.  Symphonies  i. — vii. ;  Comala,  (Cantata);  Zion, 
(do.)  ;  Die  Kreuzfahrer,  (do.) ;  Psyche,  (do.)  ;  (fee.,  &e. 

Dr.  Ferdinand  Hiller.  Die  Zerstdrung  Jerusalems^  (Oratorio)  ;  Romilda, 
(Opera) ;  Sin  Traum  in  der  Christnachf,  (do.) ;  Conradin,  der  letzte  Sohen- 
staufe,  (do.)  J  Die  Katacomien,  (do.) ;  Symphonies'!. — iii.;  &c.,  &e. 

Herr  Joseph  Joachim.  Violin  Concerto  in  G  Minor;  Hungarian  Con- 
certo ;  Overtures  to  Samlet,  Demetrius,  Seinrich  IV. ;  &c.,  &c. 

The  Abbe  Liszt.  Christus,  (Oratorio) ;  Die  Legende  von  der  Heiligen 
Elizabeth,  (do.)  ;  4  Masses,  and  a  Requiem  ;  Cantatas  ;  Symphonies  ;  Con- 
certos ;  Piano-forte  Solos ;  &c.,  &c. 

Herr  Nessler.  Der  Pfeiffer  von  Sdmelin,  (Opera) ;  Der  Trompeter  von 
Sdckingen,  (do.),  &c. 

5<  Herr  J.  J.  Raff.  Welt-JEnde,  (Oratorio) ;  K()nig  Alfred,  (Opera)  ;  Dame 
Kohold,  (do.);  Samson,  (do.) ;  Symphonies!. — xi. ;  Overtures ;  Concertos;  &c. 

Horr  Reinecke.    Konig  Manfred,  (Opera)  ;  Belsazar,  (Oratorio)  ;  &c.  /-.\ 

Herr  Anton  Rubinstein.  Nero,  (Opera) ;  Der  Damon,  (do.)  ;  Symphonies 
i. — v.;  Concertos;  &c.,  &c. 

M.  Delibes.    Lakme,  (Opera),  &c. 

M.  Gounod.    Vide  page  430. 

M.  Masse.    La  Reine  Topaze,  (Opera)  ;  Paul  et  Virginie,  (do.)  ;  &c. 

M.  Massenet.    Ste.  Marie  Magdaleine,  (Oratorio)  ;  Manon,  (Opera) ;  &c. 

M.  Reyer.    Sigurd,  (Opera) ;  &c. 

M.  Saint  Saens.    Le  Deluge,  (Oratorio) ;  Henri  VIII.,  (Opera) ;  &c. 
M.  Ambroise  Thomas.    Hamlet,  (Opera)  ;  Mignon,  (do)  ;  &c. 

For  the  names  and  works  of  other  German,  French,  and  Italian 
Composers,  see  Chapters  xxxii. — xxxiv. 

WoEKS  BY  English  Composees. 
Mr.  T.  Anderton.    Yule  Tide,  (Cantata);  &c. 
Dr.  Armes.    S.  John  the  Evangelist,  (Oratorio)  ;  &c. 
Dr.  Arnold.    Senacherih,  (Cantata) ;  &c. 
Mr.  Barnby.    Pebekah,  (Oratorio);  &c. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Barnett.    The  Raising  of  Lazarus,  (Oratorio);  &e. 

Dr.  Bexfield.    Israel  Restored,  (Oratorio)  ;  &c. 

Dr.  Bridge.    Mount  Moriah,  (Oratorio) ;  &c. 

Mr.  Caldecott.    The  Widow  of  Nain,  (Cantata)  ;  &c. 

G  g  2 


452     Works  by  Livmg  Composers,  [19T11  Century. 


fully  against  all  that  was  false,  and  mean,  and  con- 
temptible in  the  popular  taste  of  the  period — the 

Dr.  Cliipp.    Job,  (Oratorio)  ;  Naomi,  (do.) ;  &c. 

Mr.  F.  Coweii.    The  Sleeping  Beauty,  (Cantata)  ;  &c. 

Mr.  Cummiugs.    The  Fairy  Ring,  (Cantata)  ;  &c. 

Mr.  Cusins.    Gideon,  (Oratorio)  ;  Overtures  ;  Concerto  ;  &c. 

Dr.  Dearie.    Israel  in  the  Wilderness,  (Oratorio). 

>5<  Madame  Sainton  Dolby.    ^S*.  Dorothea,  (Cantata) ;  Thalassa,  (do.). 

Mr.  Otto  Goldschmidt.  Buth,  (Oratorio) ;  Concerto  for  P.  F.  ;  P.  F.  Trio  ; 
The  Chorale  Book  for  England  ;  &c.,  &c. 

^  Sir  John  Goss.  Ifioe  Believe,  (Anthem)  ;  There  is  Beauty  on  the  Moun. 
tain,  (Glee)  J  &e.,  &c. 

Mr.  Hatton.    Pascal  Bruno ,  {O'^erA) Rose,  (do.);  SezeJciah,  (Oratorio). 

^  Dr.  Hullah.     Village  Coquettes,  (Opera) ;  The  Outpost,  (do.)  ;  Songs. 

Mr.  Leslie.    Immanuel,  (Oratorio);  Judith,  (do.);  Ida,  (Opera);  &c. 

Mr.  C.  H.  liloyd.  Hero  and  Leander,  (Cantata)  ;  The  Death  of  Balder, 
(do.);  &c. 

Sir  George  Macfarren.  Don  Quixote,  (Opera) ;  Charles  II.,  (do) ;  Robin 
Hood,  (do.)  ;  St.  John  the  Baptist,  (Oratorio)  ;  Joseph,  (do.);  &c. 

Mr.  Mackenzie.    Columba,  (Opera) ;  The  Rose  of  Sharon,  (Oratorio)  ;  &c. 

The  Rev.  Sir  F.  Ouseley.    ^S".  Folycarp,  (Oratorio) ;  Kagar,  (do);  &e. 

Dr.  H.  Parry.    Prometheus  Unbound,  (Cantata) ;  Symphony  in  G  ;  &c. 

*b  Mr.  R,  C.  de  Pearsall.    Requiem  ;  Madrigals ;  Part-Songs ;  &c.,  &c. 

>i<  Mr.  PiersoD.    Jerusalem,  (Orat.)  ;  Leila,  (Opera);  Contarini,  (do.);  &c. 

Mr.  Prout.    Hereiuard,  (Cantata)  ;  Symphonies  i. — iii.  ;  &c. 

»!-«  Mr.  Henry  Smart.  The  Gnome  of  Harzburg,  (Opera)  ;  King  Rene's 
Daughter,  (Cantata) ;  &c. 

Dr.  Stainer.    Gideon,  (Oratorio) ;  8.  Mary  Magdalen,  (Cantata) ;  &c. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Stanford.  The  Three  Holy  Children,  (Oratorio) ;  The  Veiled 
Prophet,  (Opera)  ;  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims,  (do.);  Savanarola,  (do.);  &c. 

Sir  Arthur  Sullivan.  The  Light  of  the  World,  (Oratorio) ;  The  Prodigal 
>S'o»,  (do.);  The  Martyr  of  Antioch,  (do);  Numerous  Comic  Operettas;  &c. 

Mr.  Goring  Thomas.    Fsmeralda,  (Opera) ;  Nadeschda,  (do.)  ;  &c. 

The  foregoing  list  gives  but  a  very  faint  idea  of  the  work  now 
going  on,  either  in  England,  or  elsewhere  ;  for  the  notices  we  have 
been  compelled  to  omit  are  infinitely  more  numerous  than  those 
that  the  limited  amount  of  space  at  our  command  permits  us  to 
insert.  Indeed,  the  compilation  of  a  complete  catalogue  of  the 
works  produced  even  within  the  last  ten  years,  (more  especially,  on 
the  Continent),  would  be  nearly  impossible.  AVe  have  forborne 
to  notice  the  latest  productions  of  the  Xeo-Italian  School,  because 
the  purely  tentative  character  of  the  Operas  of  Signori  Eottesini, 


iQTH  Century.]  Works  by  Living  Composers.  453 

*  Baal-worship '  against  which  the  Prince  Consort 
uttered  his  indignant  protest  in  later  times — and 
ready  to  give  their  lives,  if  necessary,  in  defence  of 
the  True  and  the  Beautiful  in  Art.  This  is  no 
exaggerated  statement :  for,  Schubert  and  Weber 
actually  did  give  theh^  lives  for  it ;  and  the  legacies 
they  have  left  us  prove  that  the  sacrifice  was  not 
made  in  vain. 

The  statistics  furnished  in  our  foot-note  prove 
that  the  position  is  not  very  different,  now.  If  the 
immediate  successors  of  the  giants  have  passed 
away,  there  still  remains  a  goodly  company  of 
honest  labourers,  who  may  yet  work  wonders  for  the 
good  cause,  if  they  will  only  throw"  themselves  with 
heart  and  soul  into  the  struggle,  forgetting  their 
own  immediate  interests,  if  need  be,  that  they  may 
remember  the  interests  of  Art.  Many  have  done 
this  already  :  many  devoted  worshippers,  who  have 
refused  to  bow  the  knee  to  Baal  as  sternly  as  ever 
Schubert  or  Weber  did.  And  more  than  one  of 
these  has  set  his  seal  upon  the  history  of  the  period 
so  plainly,  that  the  remembrance  of  his  achieve- 
ments is  not  likely  to  fade  away  with  the  vanishing 
century.    Surely,  these  things  demonstrate  a  very 

CataLani,  Poncliiello,  Manzocchi,  and  Boito,  and  the  later  works 
of  Verdi,  is  so  self-evident,  that  all  attempt  to  classify  them,  until 
the  School  shall  have  more  fully  declared  its  guiding  principles, 
would  be  Loth  misleading,  and  invidious.    (See  pp.  394 — 395.) 


454  Our  Present  Co7idition,  [19TH  Century. 

close  analogy  between  the  condition  and  prospects 
of  Art  in  the  first  and  the  fourth  quarters  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  And  the  position  is  strengthened 
by  a  very  remarkable  coincidence.  When  Beethoven 
passed  from  the  world,  he  bequeathed  to  it  a  style 
which  set  imitation  at  defiance,  and  a  problem 
which  no  critic  of  the  time  was  clever  enough  to 
solve.  The  style  was,  that  belonging  to  what  is 
now  called  his  '  Third  Period.'  The  problem  was, 
the  true  position  of  his  latest  works,  in  the  history 
of  Art.  And,  are  we  not  busied,  now,  with  the  in- 
vestigation of  a  style  which  no  one  can  imitate  ? 
and  striving  to  forestall  the  judgment  that  will  be 
passed,  fifty  years  hence,  upon  Ber  'Ring  des  Nibe- 
lungeUy  and  Parsifal,  and  Tristan  und  Isolde  ?  Our 
minds  are  as  much  occupied,  now,  with  these 
matters,  as  the  minds  of  our  grandfathers  were, 
with  the  Ninth  Symphony,  and  the  Mass  in  B.  But, 
before  we  can  take  the  subject  into  serious  con- 
sideration, we  must  think  a  little  of  the  life,  and 
life-work,  of  the  author  of  the  works  in  question. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIT. 


WILHELM  RICHARD  WAGNER. 

WiLHELM  RiCHAi*D  Wagner  was  bom,  at  Leipzig,  May 
22, 1813.  In  1822,  he  entered  the  Kreuzschule,  at 
Dresden,  where  he  made  rapid  progress  in  Classics  : 
and,  so  early  was  his  childish  imagination  awakened, 
that,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  wrote  a  Tragedy, 
during  the  first  four  Acts  of  which  forty-two  charac- 
ters came  to  an  untimely  end,  leaving  the  Fifth  Act 
so  ill  supplied  with,  per sona3,  that  the  dead  men  had  to 
reappear,  as  ghosts,  in  order  to  complete  the  action 
of  the  piece.  In  the  meantime,  his  musical  education 
was  very  irregular ;  yet,  by  the  time  he  was  eighteen, 
his  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Beethoven  was 
complete  enough  to  excite  the  surprise  of  men  who 
were  well  qualified  to  appreciate  its  extent.  In 
1830,  he  began  the  study  of  Composition,  under 
Theodor  Weinlig,  the  then  Cantor  of  the  Thomas- 
Schule ;  and,  two  years  later,  he  wrote  his  first 
Symphony,  which  was  performed,  at  the  Gewand- 


45^  Tannhduser.    Lohengrin,      [1845.  1850. 

haus,  in  1833.  In  the  following  year,  lie  was  ap- 
pointed Conductor  of  the  Opera  at  Magdeburg — a 
very  unprofitable  post  indeed  ;  and,  for  some  years 
afterwards  he  lived  a  wandering,  unsettled  life,  in 
Paris,  and  elsewhere,  continually  striving  for  the 
attainment  of  a  high  ideal,  but  failing  in  everything 
he  attempted,  until,  in  1842,  Bienzi,  for  which  he 
had  written  both  libretto,  and  Music,  was  received,  at 
Dresden,  with  acclamation.  The  success  of  Der 
fiiegende  Hollander,  in  1843,  was  perhaps  scarcely 
so  brilliant ;  but  it  was  genuine  enough  to  attract 
the  attention  of  Spohr,  who  introduced  the  work,  at 
Cassel,  during  the  course  of  the  same  year.  The 
immediate  result  of  these  successes  was,  his  appoint- 
ment as  Hofkapellmeister  at  the  Dresden  Court 
Theatre,  where  he  produced  Tannhduser,  with  far 
less  happy  effect,  in  1845.  After  this,  his  popularity 
began  to  decline ;  but,  he  retained  his  appointment 
until  the  political  troubles  of  1849  rendered  his 
position  no  longer  tenable.  Hearing  that  a  warrant 
had  been  issued  for  his  arrest,  as  a  political  offender, 
he  fled,  first,  to  Weimar,  then  to  Paris,  and,  finally, 
to  Ziirich.  There  he  remained,  until  1855,  unable 
to  hear  his  own  Lohengrin,  which  was  successfully 
produced,  at  Weimar,  in  1850,  under  the  direction 
of  Liszt.  But  he  was  not  idle,  during  this  long 
period  of  enforced  seclusion.  On  the  contrary,  it 
was  at  Ziirich  that  he  first  began  to  meditate  upon 


1865.]  Tristan  und  Isolde,  457 

his  famous  Tetralogy,  Der  Eing  des  Nibelungen,  ttie 
four  divisions  of  which — Bas  Elieingold.Ble  WaUnire, 
Siegfried,  and  Gdtterddmmerung,  though  complete 
in  themselves,  are  really  inseparable.  Here,  also, 
he  first  planned  Tristan  und  Isolde,  and  began  to 
study  the  capabilities  of  Parsifal, 

In  1855,  "Wagner  accepted  an  invitation  to  London, 
to  conduct  the  Concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society. 
We  next  hear  of  him  at  Venice,  where  the  libretto 
of  Tristan  und  Isolde  was  completed,  in  1857.  In 
1859,  he  made  a  third  visit  to  Paris  ;  and,  supported  - 
by  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Prince  and  Princess 
Metternich,  he,  at  last,  obtained  the  acceptance  of 
Tannhduser  at  the  Grand  Opera.  Everything  now 
seemed  to  promise  well.  He  was  allowed  to  choose 
his  own  singers,  and  to  make  any  arrangements  he 
pleased  with  regard  to  the  scenery,  dresses,  and 
other  stao:e  accessories.  After  164  rehearsals,  in- 
eluding  fourteen  with  the  full  Orchestra,  the  piece 
was  brought  out,  on  March  13,  1861,  at  a  cost  of 
fr.  200,000  (£8000).  But,  a  cabal  had  been  formed 
against  it — chiefly,  it  was  supposed,  for  political 
reasons.  The  Parisian  Jockey  Club,  present  in  full 
force,  interrupted  the  performance  with  yells,  and 
dog- whistles ;  and  so  scandalous  were  the  dis- 
turbances with  which  the  piece  was  greeted,  that, 
after  the  third  representation,  it  was  withdrawn. 
The  fiasco  was  complete.    But,  if  Prince  Metternich 


45 8  Der  fliegende  Hollander,  [18436^1864. 


could  not  ensure  a  successful  performance  at  the 
Opera,  lie  was  at  least  able  to  assist  tlie  exiled  Com- 
poser in  another,  and  a  very  welcome  way.  Through 
his  intercession,  Wagner  received  permission  to 
return  to  any  part  of  Germany,  except  Saxony; 
and,  in  March,  1862,  even  this  last  condition  was 
remitted  ;  and  he  was  left  free  to  settle  wheresoever 
he  pleased.  For  a  time,  he  resided  at  Vienna  ;  and 
there  began  seriously  to  work  at  Die  Meistersinger 
von  Nilrnberg,  the  first  sketch  for  which  had  been 
made,  at  Dresden,  in  1845  :  but,  his  evil  star  was  in 
the  ascendant ;  and  it  was  not  until  he  was  invited 
to  Munich,  in  1864,  by  King  Ludwig  II.,  who  had 
then  recently  ascended  the  Throne  of  Bavaria,  that 
he  at  last  found  the  rest  which  enabled  him  to 
mature  his  plans,  and  think  out,  in  peaceful  security, 
the  great  scheme  which,  to  him,  represented  the  ideal 
perfection  of  the  true  Musical  Drama. 

The  King's  invitation  was  no  mere  empty  compli- 
ment. He  at  once  settled  upon  Wagner  an  annual 
grant  of  1200  gulden  (£120)  from  the  privy  purse. 
Before  the  close  of  the  year,  this  was  considerably 
increased  ;  and  a  house  was  placed  at  the  Master's 
disposal.  Wagner  was  naturalised  as  a  Bavarian 
subject.  The  King  formally  commissioned  him 
to  complete  Der  Ring  des  Nihelungen,  Der  fliegende 
IloUdnder  was  presented,  in  the  Theatre  at  Munich, 
on  Dec.  11,  1864;  and,  on  June  10,  1865,  Tristan 


1 868.]     Die  Meistersinger  V071  Niirnberg,  459 

und  Isolde  was  performedj  for  tlie  first  time,  Herr 
and  Frau  Sclinorr  taking  tlie  principal  parts. 
"Wagner  also  submitted  proposals  for  the  foundation 
of  a  new  Conservatorium  der  Musik ;  which,  however, 
failed,  through  the  opposition  raised  by  certain  local 
professors. 

It  might  have  been  reasonably  supposed  that 
peace  was  now  ensured  to  Wagner,  for  the  rest  of 
his  days.  But,  even  had  he  himself  been  '  a  man 
of  peace  ' — which  he  certainly  was  not — the  stars 
would  still  have  '  fought  against '  him.  No  sooner 
had  he  received  formal  assurance  of  the  young 
King's  generous  support,  than  the  most  abominable 
cabals  were  organised,  in  the  hope  of  bringing  him 
into  irretrievable  disgrace.  His  fatal  interference 
with  the  political  disturbances,  at  Dresden,  had 
given  him  a  bad  name,  to  begin  with ;  but,  this  was 
as  nothing,  compared  with  the  intrigues  of  which 
he  now  became  the  victim,  and  the  progress  of  which 
compelled  him,  in  December,  1865,  to  quit  the 
pleasant  little  home  provided  for  him  by  King  Lud- 
wig,  and  to  remove  to  Triebschen,  near  Lucerne, 
where  he  spent  the  next  six  years  in  retirement,  and 
almost  uninterrupted  study. 

On  the  20th  of  October,  1867,  Die  Meistersinger 
von  Number the  first  sketch  for  which  had  been 
made  in  1845,  was  completed ;  and  the  first  perform- 
ance took  place,  at  Munich,  under  the  direction  of 


460  De7' Rmg  des  Nibehmgen.  [1876. 

Herr  von  Biilow,  on  June  21,  1868.  In  the  following 
year,  the  project  for  building  a  special  Theatre  for 
the  performance  of  the  'Nihelungen  Gydus  was  taken 
into  serious  consideration.  Wagner  fixed  upon 
Bayreuth — already  consecrated  by  so  many  recol- 
lections of  the  immortal  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  Rich ter 
— as  its  site.  And,  on  his  sixtieth  birthday,  May  22, 
1872,  he  celebrated  the  foundation  of  the  now 
famous  edifice,  with  a  performance  of  Beethoven's 
Ninth  Symjpliony,  and  his  own  Kaisennarsch.  After 
this,  he  resided  permanently  at  Bayreuth,  evidently 
designing  to  end  his  days  there,  since,  in  the  garden 
of  his  house — named  '  Wahnfried  ' — he  built  the 
Mausoleum  in  which  his  remains  now  rest.  But,  we 
must  not  anticipate. 

The  Theatre  was  finished,  in  due  time,  though 
not  without  great  difficulties  ;  and,  on  August  13th, 
14th,  16th,  and  17th,  1876,  the  four  divisions  of  Der 
Ring  des Nihelungen  were  performed,  for  the  first  time, 
in  a  complete  form,  under  the  baton  of  Herr 
Hans  Eichter,  though  everything  was  arranged,  and 
personally  superintended,  by  the  Composer  himself. 
The  expenses  were  enormous  ;  and  resulted  in  a 
deficit  of  £7500.  In  the  hope  of  helping  to  defray 
this,  a  series  of  selections  from  Wagner's  principal 
Compositions  took  place,  at  the  Albert  Hall,  in 
1877;  but  the  profits  amounted  to  no  more  than 
£700.    The  remainder  of  the  sum  was  met  by  the 


1 882.}  Parsifal.  461 

proceeds  of  performances  of  the  Tetralogy — or,  as 
"Wagner  liimself  calls  it,  the  Buhnenfestsjnel — at 
Munich. 

Wagner  was  now  hard  at  work  upon  Parsifal ;  a 
work  of  mystically  religious  character,  embodying 
the  Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail.  This  was  finished, 
at  Palermo,  January  13,  1882 ;  and  first  performed, 
at  Bayreuth,  in  the  July  of  the  same  year,  under 
the  Composer's  superintendence,  but  conducted  by 
H.  Levi. 

This  immense  work,  in  which  the  mystical  Swan 
so  prominently  figures,  is  the  Composer's  veritable 
chant  du  cygne.  His  health,  already  very  much 
broken,  gave  way,  completely,  soon  after  the  first 
performance  ;  and,  on  February  13,  1883,  he  died, 
suddenly,  at  Venice,  whence  his  remains  were  re- 
moved to  Bayreuth,  and  laid  to  rest,  on  the  18th  of 
the  same  month,  in  the  family  vault,  at  '  Wahnfried.' 
The  stormy  life  was  over,  at  last.  And,  when  King 
Ludwig  rode,  alone,  at  dead  of  night,  to  visit  the 
sepulchre,  the  Composer's  bitterest  enemies  were 
already  lamenting  his  death. 

For,  Richard  Wagner's  enemies  were  to  be  counted 
by  thousands  :  we  should  probably  not  be  very  far 
wrong,  if  we  said,  by  hundreds  of  thousands. 
And  it  was  impossible  that  it  should  be  otherwise. 
With  a  temper  naturally  irritable,  and  rendered 
more  so  by  the  stings  of  long-continued  opposition, 


462  Unhealthy  Co7tiroversy.  [19TH  Century. 

lie  wrote,  like  Berlioz,  without  pausing  for  a  moment 
to  consider  tiie  effect  his  violent  expressions  might 
have  upon  the  minds  of  those  whom  they  most  inti- 
mately concerned.  We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  him 
as  a  Composer  only ;  but,  his  writings  on  Art  and 
Politics  were  numerous  enough,^  and  striking  enough, 
to  have  made  his  name  known,  even  if  he  had  never 
written  a  note  of  Music.  And  the  tone  of  these 
writings  was,  for  the  most  part,  very  much  the 
reverse  of  conciliatory:  a  circumstance  that  tempted 
his  opponents  into  the  use  of  language  so  dis- 
courteous, that,  in  1877,  Herr  Tappert,  of  Leipzig, 
made  a  collection  of  their  invectives,  and  published 
them,  in  the  form  of  a  Vocabulary.^  Unhappily,  it 
is  possible,  in  '  paper- wars  '  of  this  kind,  to  intro- 
duce a  far  more  potent  engine  of  destruction  than 
Invective,  be  it  never  so  fierce.  Wagner's  open 
enemies  never  misrepresented  his  views  with  half  so 
fatal  effect,  as  did  a  crowd  of  incautious  partisans, 
who,  under  pretence  of  explaining  his  theories  to 
the  outer  world,  and  teaching  it  to  understand  his 
works,  presented  both  in  so  unpalatable  a  guise  that 
the  outer  world  would  have  nothing  to  say  to  them. 
It  is  so  delightfully  easy  to  misinterpret  transcen- 

*  See  the  Collection  of  his  literary  works,  in  10  volumes,  Leipzig, 
1871—1885. 

^  Ein  Wagner  Lexikon-  Worterhuch  der  Unhoflichkeit.  (Leipzig, 
1877.) 


iQTH  Century.]  U^thealthy  Controversy,  463 


dental  language :  and,  transcendental  language — 
mingled  witli  copious  extracts  from  the  redoubtable 
Lexikon-Wdrterhuch — was  so  freely  used,  on  both 
sides,  that  honest  seekers  after  truth,  stigmatised 
as  '  Wagnerites,'  by  one  party,  and  '  Anti-Wagnerites,' 
by  the  other,  were  fain  to  withdraw  from  the  con- 
test, before  the  slightest  hope  of  ultimate  agreement 
presented  itself.  And  so  it  comes  to  pass,  that  a 
very  large  section  of  the  general  pubHc,  loving  Art 
none  the  less  dearly  because  it  cannot  categorically 
explain  the  grounds  of  its  devotion,  is  utterly  be- 
wildered, and  knows  not  how  to  form  an  opinion 
upon  the  subject.^ 

Yet,  even  admitting  that  the  uninitiated  some- 
times find  it  difficult  to  understand  Wagner's  own 
language,  his  principles  declare  themselves,  clear  as 
the  day,  when  studied  by  the  light  of  his  works. 

Starting  with  the  assumption,  that  it  is  both 

3  "We  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that,  during  a  certain  stage  of  tlie 
controversy,  we  were  led,  in  company  with  many  others,  into 
grievous  misapprehension,  through  the  repetition,  ad  nauseam^  of 
unintelligent  eulogies,  which  did  more  damage  to  the  cause  they 
were  intended  to  support  than  could  have  been  effected  by  any 
amount  of  vituperation  culled  from  Herr  von  Tappert's  '  Voca- 
bulary.' Those  who  wish  for  a  clear  and  dispassionate  exposition 
of  the  disputed  points  will  do  well— if  unable  to  read  AVagner's 
own  writings  in  the  original  German — to  consult  Vol.  I.  of  The 
Great  Musicians.  ('  Eicliard  Wagner ;  by  Dr.  Francis  Hueffer.' 
London.  1883),  and  the  excellent  article  on  Wagner,  in  Vol.  IV. 
of  Sir  George  Grove's  Diciionary  of  Music  and  Musicians. 


464  Theory  of  the  Musical  Drama,  [19TH  Century. 

possible,  and  in  the  liigliest  degree  desirable,  to 
create  a  Drama,  wliicli  shall  reflect  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  nineteenth  century  as  perfectly  as  the 
Greek  Classical  Drama  reflected  the  intellectual  life 
of  Athens  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  he  demands,  for 
the  realisation  of  his  idea,  the  co-operation  of  all 
the  Arts.  Poetry,  Music,  Painting,  Mimetics,  all  the 
resources  placed  at  the  Dramatist's  disposal  by  the 
progress  of  modern  civilisation,  must  be  laid  under 
contribution,  by  turns  ;  each  one  assisting  in  the 
development  of  the  perfect  whole ;  each  one  sub- 
siding into  the  background,  when  the  perfection  of 
the  whole  would  be  endangered  by  its  undue  pro- 
minence. All  that  Wagner  did,  after  he  began  to 
work  upon  Ber  fiiegende  Holldiider,  was  done — at 
first,  perhaps,  almost  unconsciously — in  furtherance 
of  this  great  scheme.  For  this,  he  was  ready  to  use 
established  forms,  or  to  sacrifice  them,  as  the 
necessity  of  the  case  demanded.  To  read  the 
history  of  the  past,  by  the  light  of  modern  progress  ; 
that  he  might  accept  the  laws  laid  down  by  his 
predecessors,  when  they  aided  the  embodiment  of 
his  design,  or  reject  them,  when  they  impeded  its 
execution.  To  study  Mozart,  and  Weber,  at  the 
Theatre,  and  Beethoven,  in  the  Concert-room ;  that 
he  might  profit  by  their  experience,  while  striviog 
to  identify  himself  with  the  current  of  their  inmost 
thoughts.    And   herein    lay  the   chief  difference 


iQTii  Century.]  Theory  of  the  Musical  Drama,  465 

between  his  great  conception,  and  that  proposed  at 
the  reunions  of  the  Conte  di  Vernio.  The  dream  of 
Vincenzo  Galilei  and  his  associates  was,  the  resus- 
citation of  the  Greek  Drama,  'pur  et  simple.  It  was 
only  by  accident  that  they  stumbled  upon  Recitative; 
and,  having  stumbled  upon  it,  they  scorned  to  enrich 
it  with  the  beautiful  harmonies  evolved  by  the  great 
Polyphonic  Schools.  What  wonder  that  their  eternal 
declamation  became  too  wearisome  for  endurance  ? 
What  wonder  that,  even  in  the  time  of  Cavalli,  and 
Cesti,  to  say  nothing  of  Aiessandro  Scarlatti,  the 
desire  for  something  more  attractive  led  to  the  move- 
ment which  ended  in  the  Da  Capo^  and  the  Concert 
Opera,  and  the  laws  set  forth  in  the  days  of  Meta- 
stasio  ?  ^  The  first  great  Composer  who  openly  pro- 
tested against  these  laws  was  Gluck.  We  have 
already  heard  him  use,  in  his  Preface  to  Alceste, 
words  which  express  Wagner's  ideas  no  less  clearly 
than  his  own.^  In  accordance  with  the  principles 
laid  down  in  that  noble  profession  of  artistic  faith, 
he  set  aside  the  established  forms  of  the  time,  when 
they  interfered  with  the  interests  of  the  dramatic 
situation,  and  employed  them  only  when  they 
rendered  themselves  subservient  to  it.  But,  he 
destroyed  nothing,  for  destruction's  sake.  He  not 
only  availed  himself  of  all  the  orchestral  resources 
of  the  age,  but  he  added  to  them,  extensively.  The 

*  See  pp.  -248—251.  '  See  pp.  254—255. 

H  h 


466  Treatmentof the  Musical  Drama,  [iqth  Century. 

flow  of  Melody,  in  his  later  works,  was  as  graceful 
as  ever  it  liacl  been  when  he  composed  for  the  Court 
of  Vienna.  He  used  every  good  thing  that  he  found 
ready  to  his  hand,  when  it  consistently  fell  in  with 
his  purpose ;  and  unhesitatingly  sacrificed  it,  when 
it  did  not.  And,  what  does  Wagner  tell  us ?  'It 
never  entered  into  my  thoughts  to  destroy  the  Aria, 
the  Duet,  or  any  other  operatic  form,  on  principle, 
as  a  stern  reformer  might  have  done :  but,  the 
renunciation  of  these  forms  followed  naturally,  from 
the  character  of  my  subjects ;  the  form  of  musical 
treatment  being  dictated,  in  every  case,  by  the 
Scenes  themselves.' 

Had  the  outer  world  been  content  to  accept  these 
words,  in  the  only  sense  in  which  it  is  possible  to 
interpret  them,  it  would  never  have  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  Wagner  held,  not  only  the  set  form 
of  the  Aria,  but  Melody  itself,  in  abhorrence.  And 
his  works  proclaim  the  honesty  of  his  words. 
Surely,  a  consistent  hater  of  Melody  could  never 
have  written  0  du  mein  holder  Abend-Stern^  or  Nun 
sei  hedanJct  mein  lieher  Schiuan,  or  produced  so  much 
as  a  single  bar  of  Tristan  und  Isolde,  which  may  be 
fitly  described  as  one  long  unbroken  stream  of 
Melody,  from  beginning  to  end — Melody,  infinitely 
more  impassioned,  and  not  a  whit  less  tuneful,  even 
at  the  moment  of  Isolde's  death,  than  the  most 
captivating   strains    in   the   poisoning   Scene  in 


1 9TII  Century.]  Treatmentof the  Musical  Drama.  467 

Lucrezia  Borgia,^  For,  true  Melody  loses  nothing 
of  its  tunefulness,  through  the  effect  of  polyodic 
treatment,  but  very  much  the  reverse. 

Now,  Wagner's  method  of  polyodic  treatment  is 
one  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  his  style. 
There  are  many  who  conscientiously  believe  that  he 
held  Form  in  greater  abhorrence,  if  possible,  than 
Melody.  But,  is  this  so  ?  Is  a  Fugue  formless, 
because  it  does  not  consist  of  a  *  First  Part,'  ending 
in  the  Dominant,  and  followed  by  a  '  Reprise,' 
like  that  of  a  Sonata  ?  The  polyodic  involutions  of 
"Wagner's  Subjects  bear  a  very  close  analogy  to, 
though  they  are  far  from  identical  with,  what  is 
commonly  called  '  Fugal  treatment ' ;  and  prove 
that  he  must  have  studied  Bach's  method  of  Part- 
writing  through  and  through,  before  he  invented  a 
new  one  for  himself.  In  connection  with  this 
point,  also,  the  world  has  been  led  very  far  astray. 
Simple  folk,  too  inexperienced  to  judge  for  them- 
selves, yet  really  anxious  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  have 
been  tempted  to  mistake  the  means  for  the  end, 
and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  have  failed  to  enter 
into  the  true  spirit  of  the  Dramas  presented  to  them. 
'  The  Music  of  this  Scene,'  says  the  typical  eulogist, 
*  is  entirely  made  up  of  the  Love-motif,"  and  the 
"Doubt-motif,"   and  the  ''Fear-motif,"  and  the 

^  See  the  remarks  on  Wagner's  Melodies  in  the  Dictionary  of 
Music  and  Musicians^  vol.  ii,  p.  526. 

II  h  2 


468 


Misinterpretation,  [19TH  Century. 


Jealous j-motif  " :  no  other  element  whatever  enters 
into  its  construction.'  Very  possibly.  V>vX^\hQ>inieniion 
of  the  Music  is,  to  express  the  passions  of  Love,  and 
Fear,  and  Doubt,  and  Jealousy.  The  four  melodic 
phrases  are  used  only  as  means  for  the  attainment 
of  that  expression  ;  and  listeners  whose  whole  at- 
tention is  rivetted  upon  the  ingenuity  with  which 
those  phrases  are  woven  together,  miss  the  intention 
of  the  Scene  as  completely  as  the  children  who  use 
their  lorgnettes  for  the  purpose  of  spying  out  the 
ropes  and  pulleys  attached  to  the  Swan-boat  of 
Lohengrin.  One  can  scarcely  wonder  that  simple 
folk,  seeing  no  farther  into  the  mind  of  the  Poet 
than  this,  find  the  Music  Drama  '  dry.'  What  does 
Wagner  himself  say  about  it  ?  '  To  a  Musician,  this 
naming  and  tracing  of  themes  means  very  little. 
If  dilettanti  are  led  by  it  to  study  a  Piano-forte 
Arrangement  with  more  attention,  well  and  good  : 
but,  to  us  Musicians,  it  stands  for  nothing.'  It  is 
interesting  to  supplement  this  practical  remark  by 
the  Composer's  account  of  his  own  impressions, 
during  the  time  at  which  he  was  engaged  upon 
Tristan  und  Isolde.  '  I  did  not  construct  it  upon  a 
system,'  he  says.  '  I  set  aside  all  theory,  moving 
with  the  utmost  freedom,  and  with  such  complete 
independence  of  theoretical  misgivings,  that  I  saw 
how  far  I  had  exceeded  my  own  system,  even  while 
I  was  writing.    There  can  be  no  greater  pleasure 


iQTii  Century.]  Just  Judgment. 


469 


than  the  perfect  abandonment  felt  by  an  Artist,  while 
composing.' 

Surely,  this  is  looking  at  the  heart  of  the  matter. 
And  it  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  works 
now  before  us  will  most  certainly  be  judged  by  the 
generation  to  come.  Twenty  years  hence,  the 
terms  '  Wagnerite '  and  *  Anti-Wagnerite,'  will  be 
as  completely  forgotten  as  '  Buffonist '  and  '  Anti- 
Buffonist '  are  now.  Twenty  years  hence,  the  Master's 
imitators — who  are  many,  and  very  busy — will  have 
received  their  just  reward.  And,  by  the  time  the 
Twentieth  Century  dawns  upon  the  world,  the 
'  paper-war  '  will  be  regarded  as  an  exhibition  of 
very  questionable  taste  indeed ;  and  Ber  fliegende 
Hollander,  and  Tannhduser,  and  Die  Meister singer, 
Lohengrin,  and  Parsifal,  Tristan  und  Isolde,  and  Der 
Ring  des  Nibelungen,  will  have  been  judged,  not  by 
their  machinery,  but  by  their  merits  ;  not  as  marvels 
of  ingenuity,  or  shrieks  of  revolutionary  delirium; 
but,  as  inspirations  of  genius,  or  tentative  failures. 
Many  of  us  know,  well  enough,  on  which  side  the 
judgment  will  be  given  :  but,  the  critic  of  to-day  has 
no  right  to  anticipate  the  verdict  of  the  Future.  If, 
when  the  voice  of  party  feeling  is  hushed,  the  works 
are  found  good,  and  true,  and  beautiful,  they  will 
be  better  understood,  and  more  frequently  per- 
formed, in  the  years  to  come,  than  they  are  now. 
If  not,  they  will  fade  out  of  existence,  with  the 


470       The  Verdict  of  the  Fuhire.  [19TH  Century. 

fashions  of  the  day,  and  their  place  will  know  them 
no  more. 

Can  we  not  try  to  put  ourselves  into  the  position 
of  the  critics  of  the  Future  ?  To  close  our  ears  to 
the  din  of  the  controversy,  and  open  them  to  the 
expression  of  artistic  truth  and  beauty  ?  To  listen 
to  Music,  instead  of  picking  it  to  pieces  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
l'exvoi. 

To  carry  on  our  History  of  the  development  of  Art, 
beyond  the  condition  in  which  it  was  left,  by 
Richard  TVagner,  in  1883,  would  be  manifestly 
absurd  :  but,  we  cannot  agree  with  those  who  look 
forward  to  a  disastrous  future.  Granted  that  we 
are  without  a  Leader,  fitted  to  wear  the  crown  laid 
down  by  Beethoven,  more  than  half  a  century  ago  : 
does  it  necessarily  follow  that  no  such  Leader  is 
living  among  us,  even  now,  unknown ;  learning  his 
Gamut,  perhaps,  in  a  garret,  in  Soho,  as  Beethoven 
learned  his,  at  Bonn  ?  Can  we  even  be  sure  that  he 
is  not  already  at  work,  in  London,  or  Paris,  or 
Dresden ;  and  failing  in  his  work,  as  Gluck  failed, 
at  the  King's  Theatre,  in  1745  ?  Who  can  say  that 
his  first  Opera,  or  Oratorio,  or  Symphony,  or  Song, 
or  little  Piano-forte  Piece,  has  not  already  been 
given  to  the  w^orld,  and  missed  its  mark?  The 
early  works  of  the  greatest  geniuses  miss  their 
mark,  sometimes,  as  Tannhduser  missed  its  mark 


472  The  Coming  Leader,  [iqth  Century. 

in  Paris.  The  Leader  is  not  always  recognised, 
at  the  moment  of  his  first  appearance  :  but  he 
never  fails  to  manifest  himself,  when  the  Art-world 
is  ready  for  his  advent.  Is  it  ready,  now  ?  There 
never  was  a  time  at  which  it  was  more  full  of  life 
and  energy  than  it  is  at  the  present  moment.  .  That 
we  are  passing  through  a  period  of  transition,  no  one 
can  doubt.  No  one  can  foretell  the  nature  of  the 
changes  that  may,  and  in  all  probability  will,  take 
place,  before  the  first  morning  of  the  Twentieth 
Century  dawns  upon  the  world.  But,  we  have 
every  reason  to  look  forward  to  them  with  the 
assurance  that  they  will  work  together  for  good. 
The  signs  of  the  times  all  point  in  the  direction  of 
solid  progress.  The  work  of  musical  education  is 
progressing  more  satisfactorily  than  it  ever  did 
before.  No  '  smattering '  of  knowledge  is  accepted, 
now.  In  London  alone,  three  great  Public  Schools 
of  Music  ^  are  training  students,  not  a  few  of  whom 
are  certain  to  make  an  impression,  fifteen  years 
hence,  upon  the  Art-life  of  the  period.  The  monu- 
mental v/orks  of  the  Great  Masters  are  better 
known,  and  better  understood,  than  ever;  and  they 
are  within  the  reach  of  everyone.   A  hundred  years 

^  The  number  of  Students  now  enjoying  the  benefit  of  a  thorough 
and  exhaustive  musical  education  at  the  Eoyal  College  of  Music  is 
199  ;  at  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Music,  460;  and,  at  the  Guildhall 
School  of  Music,  2400. 


iQTii  Century.]  The  Promise  of  the  Future.  473 

ago.  Dr.  Arnold,  after  publishing  four  volumes  of 
Cathedral  Music,  by  subscription,  was  tempted  to 
begin  the  great  edition  of  Handel's  Works,  which, 
before  it  was  half  completed,  he  was  obliged 
to  abandon,  from  want  of  sufficient  patronage  to 
cover  the  expense  of  printing.  Now,  a  poor 
student  can  buy  the  Messiah,  for  a  shilling ;  and 
complete  editions  of  Palestrina,  Handel,  Bach, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Schubert,  and  hosts 
of  lesser  Masters,  are  within  the  reach  of  all  who 
care  to  see  them,  at  the  British  Museum,  or  the 
Royal  College  of  Music,  from  the  doors  of  which  no 
earnest  reader  is  ever  likely  to  be  turned.  And, 
for  a  shilling,  the  poorest  of  us  can  hear  the 
greatest  works  of  the  greatest  Masters  performed 
by  the  greatest  Artists  living.  It  is  impossible  to 
over-estimate  either  the  value,  or  the  significance, 
of  these  high  privileges.  Neither  is  earnestness 
wanting.  But,  unity  of  purpose  is.  While  we  are 
disputing  the  rival  claims  of  this  School,  or  of  that, 
instead  of  worshipping  that  which  is  good  and 
beautiful  in  every  School,  we  are  simply  checking 
the  stream  of  progress,  instead  of  advancing  it. 
There  never  was  a  time  at  which  it  was  more 
necessary  to  pull  together,  than  it  is,  now ;  a  time 
at  which  the  mysterious  sympathy  which  binds 
Artist  to  Artist  was  more  needed :  at  which  the 
elimination  of  party  feeling  from  the  domain  of 


474  The  Secret  Brotherhood,  [iqth  Century. 

Criticism  was  more  imperatively  demanded.  And, 
surely,  these  conditions  involve  no  great  amount  of 
self-sacrifice  on  the  part  of  those  whose  love  of 
Art  is  real,  and  true,  and  earnest.  We  must  all 
pull  together.  Let  every  young  aspirant  make  up 
his  mind  to  this,  when  he  first  vows  himself  to  the 
service  of  Art :  swearing — as  the  Athenian  Ephebus 
was  bound  to  swear,  when  he  vowed  himself  to  that 
of  his  Country — that  he  will  leave  it,  not  in  a 
worse,  but  in  a  better  condition  than  that  in  which 
he  found  it.  To  those  who  do  this,  in  a  true  and 
loyal  spirit,  the  History  of  Music  will  be  full  of 
comfort,  and  encouragement :  and  we  cannot  con- 
clude our  brief  narrative  of  its  battles,  and  its 
triumphs,  more  fitly  than  in  the  golden  words  of 
Eobert  Schumann — the  last  he  ever  wrote  for  the 
benefit  of  his  brother  Artists  : 

'  In  eveey  age,  there  is  a  secret  band  of  kindred 
SPIRITS.    Ye  who  are  of  this  fellowship,  see  that 

YE  WELD  THE  CIRCLE  FIRMLY,  THAT  SO  THE  TRUTH  OF 
ART  MAY  SHINE  EVER  MORE  AND  MORE  CLEARLY,  SHEDDING 
JOY  AND  BLESSING  FAR  AND  NEAR.' 


APPENDIX. 


EPITOME    OF   THE  TECHNICAL 
HISTORY  OF  MUSIC,  FROM  THE 
EARLIEST  AGES  TO  THE 
PRESENT. 


APPENDIX. 


Section  I. — The  Epoch  op  the  Geeek  Drama. 

(Illustrating  pages  3 — 13^  and  464.) 

The  details  of  the  intimate  connection  well  known  to  have 
existed  between  the  Music  of  the  Greeks  and  their  gorgeous 
Drama  must  ever  remain  a  mystery  to  the  technical  his- 
torian ;  since,  as  we  explained  in  our  opening  chapter,  not 
a  single  trustworthy  example  of  Hellenic  /LteXo?  has  been 
preserved  to  us.  All  we  know  is,  that  the  Drama  was  sung 
throughout;  and,  that  the  Music  of  the  Choruses  differed 
from  that  of  the  Dialogue,  as  essentially  as  the  Poetry.  The 
Dramatic  Chorus  originated  in  the  Dithyrambic  Odes,  sung, 
in  the  Doric  Dialect,  in  honour  of  Dionysus.^  In  very 
early  times,  these  Odes  were  sung  by  performers  dressed 
as  Satyrs.^  Thespis  is  said  to  have  first  relieved  their 
monotony,  by  the  interpolation  of  Iambic  Verses,  declaimed 
by  a  single  Actor,  about  the  year  B.C.  535.  ^schylus, 
whose  first  Tragedy  was  written  B.C.  500,  established  a 
closer  relationship  between  these  two  primitive  elements  of 

1  The  Grreek  Bacchus,  as  distinguished  from  the  later  deity  worshipped 
by  the  Romans.  Diodorus  mentions  three  gods  of  this  name  :  the  Great, 
or  Indian  Bacchus,  called  Dionysus,  in  Greece,  and  Osiris,  in  Egypt ; 
the  Horned  Bacchus,  son  of  Jupiter,  and  Proserpine;  and  the  more 
popular  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  called  the  Bacchus  of  Thebes. 

^  Whence  the  derivation  of  the  word,  Tragedy  (rpaymSia),  from  rpayfia^ 
a  goat's  sldn. 


478 


The  Greek  Dra?J2a. 


the  Drama,  and  added  a  second  Actor.  A  third  Actor  was 
afterwards  added,  by  Sophocles,  who  sometimes  placed  a 
part  of  the  Chorus  upon  the  Stage.  But,  even  after  this 
last-named  innovation,  the  Strophes  and  Antistrophes  of 
the  Chorus  performed  a  function  very  nearly  analogous  to 
that  of  an  Interlude,  sung  between  the  Acts  of  a  Tragedy, 
and  rather  commenting  upon  its  Action  than  taking  a 
personal  share  in  it.  Of  such  Choruses  there  were  usually 
four,  the  first  of  which  immediately  followed  the  Prologue, 
while  the  rest  were  placed  between  certain  portions  of  the 
Dialogue  called  Episodes,  thus  relieving  the  performers, 
without  interrupting  the  Action  of  the  piece,  which  was 
continuous,  throughout.  The  formal  division  of  a  Drama 
into  Five  Acts  was  of  Roman  origin,  and  dates  no  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Terence. 

The  great  Lenaean  Theatre,  at  Athens,  in  which  these 
Tragedies  were  presented  with  such  magnificence  that 
Plutarch  has  accused  the  Athenians  of  spending  more 
money  on  their  Drama  than  on  their  Fleets  and  Armies,  was 
built  on  the  S.E.  slope  of  the  Acropolis.  The  seats  for  the 
spectators  were  arranged  in  segments  of  huge  concentric 
circles,  placed  one  above  another,  and  sloping  downwards, 
in  the  form  of  a  hollow  inverted  and  truncated  cone,  the 
floor  of  which  formed  a  level  area,  in  the  centre  of  which 
was  placed  the  Thymele  (Sv/ieX7]),  or  altar  of  Bacchus. 
This  area,  comprised  within  about  three-fourths  of  a  circle, 
and  answering  to  the  Pit  of  an  English  Theatre,  was  called 
the  Orchestra,  (op%»?o"Tpa) ;  and,  here,  the  Chorus  sang  and 
danced.  The  front  of  the  Stage  (7rpo<;K7jvLov)  formed  the 
chord  of  the  arc  cut  off  from  the  Orchestra.  Its  floor  was 
on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  Thymele ;  and,  at  the  back 
of  it,  was  a  wall,  called  the  Scena,  {aKr^vi'f).  Scenery, 
representing  the  locality  in  which  the  Action  of  the  Drama 
was  supposed  to  take  place,  was  either  stretched  across,  or 


The  Music  of  the  Mass, 


479 


built  up  against  this  wall ;  and  there  can  be  no  possible 
doubt  tbat  it  was  changeable,  during  the  progress  of  the 
piece,  though  it  generally  represented  a  Palace,  with  three 
doors,  the  central,  or  Koyal  Door,  being  reserved  for  the 
principal  performers.  Before  the  performance,  the  Scena 
was  covered  by  a  curtain,  which  was  lowered,  when  the 
Play  began,  and  raised  again,  at  the  end.  The  Stage  itself 
was  never  hidden  from  view. 

Section  II. — The  Epoch  of  Plain  Chaunt. 

(Illustrating  Chapter  II.) 

After  the  absorption  of  Greece  into  the  great  Eoman 
Empire,  its  Music  became  so  far  a  lost  Art,  that  an  entirely 
new  point  of  departure  may  be  dated  from  the  appearance 
of  the  early  Christian  Converts,  in  Rome,  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles.  The  Music  brought,  by  these  Neophytes,  from 
the  East,  was  that  which  they  had  learned  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem.  After  the  Victory  of  Constantino,  it  was 
transferred  from  the  Catacombs  to  the  Roman  Churches  j 
and  from  it  was  developed  the  grand  system  of  Plain 
Chaunt  which  forms  the  basis  of  pure  Ecclesiastical 
Music. 

The  oldest  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies  we  possess  are  ih^Tsalm- 
T  ones  J  described  at  pp.  17 — 20,  84 — 87;  and  the  Melodies 
of  the  AntipJions,  or  Verses  sung  before  and  after  each 
Psalm,  as  set  forth  in  the  Roman  Vesperal.  Next  to  these, 
in  point  of  antiquity,  are  the  Hymns,  mentioned  at  pp. 
87 — 88,  and  the  Sequences^  or  Proses,  {Sequentice,  vel  Prosce), 
sung,  oil  certain  Festivals,  between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel, 
at  High  Mass.  Next  follow  the  Melodies  to  those  portions 
of  the  Mass  which  change  with  the  Festival :  as,  the  In- 
troitusj  sung  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mass ;  the  Gradiiale, 


480  The  Tzuo  Kinds  of  Real  Fugue. 


Tractus,  Versus,  and  Alleluia,  sung  between  the  Epistle 
and  Gospel ;  the  Sursnm  corda  and  the  Prcefaiin,  or 
'Proper  Preface';  together  with  the  Cantus,  or  Accent, 
which  governs  the  recitation  of  the  Epistle^  the  Gospel, 
and  the  Prayers.  The  unchangeable  portions  of  the  Mass 
are,  the  Kyrie  eleison  j  the  Gloria  in  excel  sis ;  the  Credo; 
the  Sanctus,  Benedictus,  and  Osanna ;  and  the  Agnus  Dei. 
Finally,  there  remain  the  Melodies  to  the  Lamentationes,  the 
Passio  Jesu  Christie  and  other  Music  sung  during  Holy 
Week,  and,  especially  the  Exultet,  sung  (in  Modes  IX,  and 
X.)  on  Holy  Thursday,  and  generally  accepted  as  the  most 
perfect  and  beautiful  Plain  Chaunt  Melody  in  existence. 

The  Psalm-Tones,  and  the  Melodies  to  the  Antiplions 
and  Hymns  will  be  found  in  the  Antiphonary,  and  Ves- 
peral ;  and  all  that  pertains  to  the  Mass,  in  the  Gradual ; 
printed,  on  a  four-lined  Stave,  in  the  square  black  notes 
shown  at  p.  34. 

Section  III. — The  Epoch  of  the  Polyphonic  Schools. 

(Illustrating  Chapters  III. — IX.) 

When  the  rude  forms  of  Discant,  and  Organum,  practised 
by  Hucbald,  and  Guido  d'Arezzo,  were  abandoned,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  invention  of  Counterpoint,  the  Composers 
of  the  time,  following  the  course  of  development  described 
at  pp.  51 — 52,  struck  out  an  entirely  new  Art-form,  called 
the  Fugue,  which  was  of  two  kinds.  Free,  or  Unlimited,^ 
and  Strict,  or  Limited."^  The  former  kind  still  retains  its 
name,  and  is  now  called  Real  Fugue,  to  distinguish  it 
from  a  more  modern  form  of  which  we  shall  treat  later 
on.    The  latter  kind  is  now  called  Canon. 


Yr.  lihre  ;  Germ.  frei. 
^  Fr.  liee  ;  Germ,  gehundene. 


Real  Fugue,  Strict  and  Fj^ee,  481 

Real  Fugue,  of  tlie  Free  kind,  as  practised  in  the  lotli 
and  16tli  centuries,  was  based  upon  a  Subject — generally, 
a  fragment  of  a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody — wbicli  was  first 
given  out  by  a  single  Voice,  and  then  answered,  by  all 
the  Voices  in  turn,  either  in  the  Octave,  or,  more  generally, 
in  the  Fifth  above,  or  the  Fifth  below  ;  every  Interval  in 
the  Subject  {Dux),  whether  approached  by  the  leap  of  a 
Second,  a  Third,  a  Fourth,  a  Fifth,  or  an  Octave,  being 
exactly  reproduced  in  the  Answer,  {Comes).  This  form 
was  called  '  Free,^  because,  after  the  notes  of  the  Subject 
had  once  been  imitated,  the  Part  containing  the  Imitation 
was  free  to  proceed  in  any  direction  the  Composer  pleased. 
The  Imitation  of  the  leading  Subject  was  not,  indeed,  de- 
veloped at  any  great  length,  under  any  circumstances  ;  but, 
as  soon  as  new  words  appeared  in  the  text,  a  new  Subject 
was  adapted  to  them,  and  a  new  system  of  Imitation 
inaugurated. 

Strict,  or  Limited  Real  Fugue — now  called  Canon — 
differed  from  this,  in  that  the  Theme  {Guida)  sung  by  the 
leading  Voice,  was  imitated  by  every  other  Voice,  note  for 
note,  from  beginning  to  end  of  the  Composition,  so  that  it 
was  only  necessary  to  write  out  the  Guida,  since  every 
other  Voice  was  bound  to  follow  its  lead.  Composers  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries  wrote  Fugues  of  this  kind  with 
almost  miraculous  ingenuity,^  sometimes  making  the  imi- 
tating Voice  follow  the  Guida  upside  down;  sometimes, 
backwards ;  sometimes,  missing  every  other  note.  In  these 
cases,  the  only  direction  given  to  the  singer  was  conveyed 
in  an  enigmatical  Inscription  or  Motto,  such  as  Vade  retro 
Sathanas  !  ^  to  show  that  the  second  Voice  was  to  begin  at 
the  end, and  sing  backwards;  or,  Decimas  reddo  omnia  quce 

^  See  the  account  of  Byrd's  Non  nobis  Domiiie,  at  p.  81. 
"  '  Get  thee  behind,  Satan  ! ' 

1  i 


Canhis  Jictus. 


jpossideOj  to  indicate  that  one  Voice  was  to  sing  at  the 
Interval  of  a  Tenth  below  the  other. 

It  was  against  absurdities  such  as  these  that  the  Council  of 
Trent  protested.  In  the  Golden  Age,  nearly  all  the  finest 
Masses  were  written  with  a  Kyrie,  Sanctiis,  Benedictus,  and 
Agnus  Dei,  in  Real  Fugue  of  the  Free  kind,  and  a  Gloria , 
and  Credo,  in  a  more  cursive  style,  with  occasional  Points 
of  Imitation  only.  The  Im^projperia,  and  manj  parts  of  the 
Lament ationes,  were  written  in  plain  Counterpoint,  of  the 
First  Order ;  but  the  Motet,  sung,  like  the  Gradual,  between 
the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  was  generally  a  Free  Real  Fugue, 
of  very  elaborate  construction ;  and  the  Fidl  Anthem  of  the 
English  School  resembled  it  very  closely.  The  Madrigal 
was  lighter  in  style ;  and,  though  full  of  effective  Points  of 
Imitation,  made  but  little  attempt  at  ingenuity  of  con- 
trivance.   The  Villanella,  and  Balletta,  were  lighter  still. 

Without  the  Theoretical  Works  of  the  period,  we  should 
understand  but  little  of  this  beautiful  Music;  but,  the 
MusiccB  activce  Micrologus  of  Ornithoparchus,  [1517],  the 
Toscanello  of  Pietro  Aron  [1529],  the  Dodecachordon  of 
Glareanus  [1547],  the  Institutioni  armoniche  of  Zarlino, 
[3B3oks;  1558.  1562.  1573],  the  Pratica  di  Musica  of 
Zacconi  [2  Books;  1592.  1622],  our  own  Morley's  Plaine 
and  Easie  Introduction  to  Practicall  Musicke,  [1597],  the 
very  rare  El  Melopeo  of  Cerone,  [1613],  and  other  similar 
works,  give  us  a  clear  insight  into  its  mysteries,  especially 
with  regard  to  the  Rules  of  Gantus  fictus  or  Musica  Jicta, 
that  enable  us  to  supply,  with  certainty,  the  accidental 
Sharps  and  Flats,  which  the  older  writers  omitted,  on  prin- 
ciple, (seeing  that  the  singers  of  the  age  knew  perfectly 
well  where  to  introduce  them,)  and  which  the  singers  held  in 
such  contempt,  that  they  called  them  Signa  asinina — 
Asses'  marks.  We  are  also  greatly  assisted  in  this,  and 
7  '  I  pay  tithes  of  all  I  possess.' 


The  Sistine  Ckoir. 


483 


other  similar  difficulties,  by  the  traditions  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel :  for,  the  unbroken  succession  of  the  thirty-two 
famous  Gapellani  Cantores  who  represent  the  Pontifical 
Choir  enables  them  to  sing  the  Missa  Papa  Marcelli,  and 
the  Lamentationes,  and  the  Improperia,  and  the  wonderful 
Miserere  of  Allegri,  as  they  were  sung  when  first  composed; 
and  recent  events  tend  to  prove  that  their  venerable  tradi- 
tions are  not  likely  to  be  lost. 

Section  IV. — The  Epoch  op  Monodia. 

(Illustrating  Chapters  X. — XII.) 

The  little  coterie  that  met  at  the  Palazzo  Bardi,  in 
Florence,  repudiated  both  the  rich  Harmonies,  and  the 
ingenious  Imitations,  cultivated  by  the  Polyphonic  Schools^ 
and  accompanied  their  Voices  only  with  a  Basso  continuo, 
or  Figured  Bass,  which  differed  but  little  from  that  used 
for  Unaccompanied  Recitative  {Recitativo  secco)  in  the  time 
of  Handel,  except  that  the  figures  11,  12,  13,  were  substi- 
tuted for  4,  5,  and  6,  when  those  Intervals  occurred  in  the 
Octave  above,  as  shown  in  Fig.  28.  p.  126.*  The  Dramatic 
Music  of  this  period  has  already  been  fully  discussed.  One 
of  its  most  characteristic  manifestations  was,  the  Dramatic 
Cantata,  for  a  single  Voice,  with  a  very  slight  Accompani- 
ment— an  Art- form  undoubtedly  older  than  either  the 
Opera,  or  the  Oratorio. 

Section  V. — The  Epoch  op  the  Polyodic  Schools. 

(Illustrating  Chapters  XVIII.— XXI.) 
By  a  not  unnatural  process  of  reaction,  the  meagre  Har- 

8  It  has  been  said,  that  the  Unprepared  Chord  of  the  Dominant  Seventh 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Compositions  of  Giovanni  Mouton,  who  flourished 
nearly  a  century  before  Monteverde  ;  but  we  ourselves  have  not  been 
fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  an  example.    See  p.  98. 

I  i  2 


484  The  Elements  of  Tonal  Fugue. 


monies,  and  threadbare  Accompaniments  of  tlie  Monodic 
Style,  led  to  tlie  invention  of  the  modern  system  of  Part- 
writing  described  at  pp.  208 — 212. 

The  great  Art-form  to  which  this  system  gave  rise  was, 
the  Tonal  Fugue — so  called,  because  the  Answer,  [Comes), 
instead  of  reproducing  the  exact  Intervals  proposed  by  the 
Subject,  {Dux),  modifies  them,  in  accordance  with  the 
Tonality  of  the  Scale  in  which  it  is  written. 

Eight  essential  elements  enter  into  the  structure  of  the 
Tonal  Fugue:  viz.  (1)  The  Subject,  (2)  The  Answer,  (3) 
The  Counter-Subject,  (4)  The  Codetta,  (5)  The  Free  Part, 
(6)  The  Episode,  (7)  The  Stretto,  and  (8)  The  Pedal,  or 
Organ-Point.  Besides  these,  there  are  innumerable  Devices, 
which,  though  not  essential  to  the  conduct  of  the  Fugue, 
are  very  valuable  accessories. 

The  Subject  is  generally  longer  than  that  of  the  older 
Real  Fugue ;  and  frequently  consists  of  two  members,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  well-marked  caesura.  When  the  Tonic  of 
the  Scale  occupies  a  prominent  position  in  the  Subject,  the 
Answer  replies  with  the  Dominant;  and  vice  versa.  Thus, 
should  the  Subject,  in  the  Key  of  C,  begin  with  the  notes, 
C.  G,  the  Answer  will  reply  with  G.  C ;  answering  a 
Fifth  by  a  Fourth,  or  vice  versa.  It  is  this  peculiarity 
which  constitutes  the  Tonal  Answer,  and  the  Tonal 
Fugue.® 

The  Counter-Subject  is  a  subordinate  Theme,  destined  to 
accompany  the  Subject  and  Answer  in  all  their  evolutions, 
after  the  first  plain  statement  of  the  former ;  and,  since  it 
will  sometimes  appear  above  the  Subject,  and  sometimes 

'  There  are  certain  Subjects  which  will  not  admit  of  a  Tonal  Answer. 
In  these  cases,  modern  Composers  give  the  answer,  as  in  Eeal  Fugue, 
though  conforming,  in  all  other  respects,  to  the  conduct  of  the  Tonal 
Fugue.  Handel's  Amen  Chorus  affords  a  magnificent  example  of  this 
mode  of  treatment. 


The  Exposition  of  Tonal  Ftcgue.  485 


below  itj  it  must  necessarily  be  written  in  Double  Counter- 
point. Should  there  be  two,  or  three  Counter- Subjects, 
they  must,  for  the  same  reason,  be  written  in  Triple  or 
Quadruple  Counterpoint.  The  Codetta  is  a  short  passage 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  joining  the  Subject  to  the 
Counter- Subject.  The  term.  Free  Part,  is  applied  to  every 
Part  which,  having  stated  the  Subject  and  Counter-Subject 
in  due  course,  is  permitted  to  proceed,  for  a  time,  in  any 
direction  most  convenient  to  the  Composer.  The  Episode 
is  an  intermediate  passage,  in  which  neither  the  Subject  nor 
the  Counter- Subject  are  introduced;  but,  the  Episodes,  in 
a  well-conducted  Fugue,  are  always  suggested  by  the 
Subject,  or  one  of  the  Counter-Subjects.  The  Stretto  is  a 
passage  in  which  the  Subject  and  Counter- Subjects  are 
woven  together,  in  close  Imitation,  resembling  that  of  a 
Canon.  The  Pedal,  or  Organ-Point,  is  a  long  note — almost 
always  either  the  Tonic,  or  the  Dominant — sustained,  in  the 
Bass,  through  several  bars,  and  frequently,  though  not  of 
necessity,  serving  as  the  foundation  of  the  Stretto. 

In  a  regularly-constructed  Fugue,  the  Parts  begin  by 
entering,  one  after  the  other,  with  the  Subject,  and  Answer, 
alternately.  After  performing  this  indispensable  duty,  each 
Part  proceeds,  by  aid  of  the  Codetta,  to  a  Counter-Subject; 
after  which,  it  is  left,  for  the  moment,  free.  This  part  of 
the  Fugue  is  called  its  Exposition ;  and  the  order  in  which 
the  Parts  enter,  one  after  the  other,  is  called  their  Reper- 
cussion. Should  the  Fugue  be  very  regularly  developed, 
each  Part  which  entered  with  the  Subject  now  reappears 
with  the  Answer,  and  vice  versa  ;  the  order  of  the  Reper- 
cussion being  either  retained  unchanged,  or  reversed.  The 
Fugue  may  now  be  relieved  by  Modulations  to  the  Attend- 
ant Keys,  or  by  occasional  Episodes,  or  by  the  introduction 
of  some  ingenious  Devices,  such  as  the  Inversion  of  the 
Subject  in  Contrary  Motion,  or  the  use  of  the  figure  called 


486 


The  Minuet. 


Diminution,  in  which  the  Subject  appears  in  notes  half  their 
original  length,  or  Augmentation,  in  which  the  length  of 
the  notes  is  doubled.  Here  also  may  be  introduced  the 
Stretto,  often  followed,  as  the  Fugue  approaches  its  con- 
clusion, by  a  second,  or  third  Stretto,  closer  than  the  first, 
and  supported  by  the  Organ-Point. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  this  form  of  Composi- 
tion affords  scope  for  the  exercise  of  great  ingenuity  and 
learning.  Many  of  the  noblest  Choruses  of  Bach  and  Handel 
are  Tcnal  Fugues  ;  and  Composers  of  the  18th  century 
used  the  same  form  for  much  of  their  Instrumental  Music, 
whether  written  for  the  Organ,  the  Harpsicbord,  or  the  Full 
Orchestra. 

Section  VI. — The  Epoch  of  the  Development  op  Instru- 
mental Music. 
(Illustrating  Chapters  X.— XXII.) 

After  the  Invention  of  the  Cantata,  the  Opera,  and  the 
Oratorio,  the  development  of  Instrumental  Music  was  very 
rapid.  Its  early  attempts  were  based  upon  Dance-Tunes, 
which,  for  considerably  more  than  a  century,  represented 
its  most  important  productions,  passing,  during  that  time^ 
through  many  modifications  both  of  form,  and  treatment. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  these  interesting  Movements 
was  the  Minuet y  (Fr.  Meniiet^  Ital.  Menuetto)  ;  a  French 
Dance  Tune,  in  J  Time,  consisting  of  two  Strains,  eacb 
beginning,  in  old  examples,  on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar,  but 
sometimes,  in  later  ones,  on  the  third.  Some  Minuets,  of 
not  very  early  date,  were  written  in  f  Time ;  but  the  Tempo 
was  always  slow.  Each  Strain  usually  contained  eight 
bars  ;  and  both  were  repeated.  Sometimes,  the  first  Strain 
modulated  to  the  Scale  of  the  Dominant ;  but,  more  gene- 
*  From  menu,  small ;  in  allusion  to  the  dainty  little  steps  of  the  Dance. 


The  Sarabande.    The  Giga. 


487 


rally^  both  sections  ended  with  the  Tonic  Cadence.  The 
two  finest  Minuets  in  existence  are,  Hande?s_,  in  Samson, 
and  Mozart's,  in  II  Don  Giovanni. 

The  Sarabande,  (Ital.  Sarahanda)^  was  a  still  slower  and 
more  stately  Dance,  of  Spanish  origin,  usually  written  in  -| 
Time.  Like  the  Minuet,  it  consists  of  two  Strains,  both 
repeated,  and  both  beginning  on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar. 
Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  very  rare. 

In  the  Suites  of  the  18th  century,  the  Sarabande  was 
usually  followed  by  a  Giga. 

The  Giga,  (Fr.  Gigue,  Eng.  Jig),  derives  its  name  from 
the  Geige,  or  early  German  Fiddle.  It  consists  of  two 
lively  Strains,  in  ^,  or,  less  frequently,  in  -I,  or  f  Time ; 
both,  of  which  are  repeated,  the  first  often  ending  in  the  Scale 
of  the  Dominant.  Gigas  of  later  date  often  introduce 
effective  Points  of  Imitation  between  the  Bass,  and  the 
upper  parts. 

The  Loure  ^  derives  its  name  from  a  kind  of  Bagpipe,  not 
unlike  the  Musette.  It  consists  of  two  repeated  Strains,  like 
those  of  the  Giga;  but,  its  Tempo  is  slower,  and  it  is 
generally  written  in  ^  Time — rarely,  in  f. 

The  Pavane,  (Eng.  Pavan,  or  Pavin,  Ital.  Padov ana),  wqjS 
a  very  slow  and  stately  Dance,  consisting  of  three  Strains, 
written  in  Alia  breve  Time,  with  four  Minims  in  the  bar,  as 
indicated  by  the  barred  Semicircle,  Each  Strain,  according 
to  Morley,  consisted  of  eight,  twelve,  or  sixteen  Semibreves, 
(i.e.  four,  six,  or  eight  bars)  ;  and  each  of  the  three  Strains 
was  repeated.  The  Dance  is  said  to  be  of  Spanish  origin, 
and  the  name  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin, ^at*o,  a  peacock ; 
but,  its  Italian  title  would  seem  to  connect  it  with  Padua. 
The  Pavane  is  usually  followed  by  a  Galliard. 

The  Gagliarda,  (Fr.  Gaillard,  Eng.  Galliard),  was  a 

^  Said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Vouire — the  original  name  of  the  Instru- 
ment described  in  the  text. 


488 


The  Gavotte,    The  Boiirrde, 


Koman  Dance-Tune,  for  which  reason  it  is  sometimes  called 
the  Bomanesca.  It  consisted  of  two  Strains,  of  a  merry 
rollicking  character,  in  f  Time;  both  beginning  on  the 
third  beat  of  the  bar,  and  both  repeated.  A  few  examples 
have  been  found  in  Common  Time. 

The  Branle,  (Ital.  Branla,  Eng.  Brawl),  was  an  old  French 
Dance-Tune,  in  Common  Time,  consisting  of  two  Strains, 
generally  of  four  bars  each,  though  examples  have  been 
preserved,  in  which  the  first  Strain  is  longer  than  the 
second.  Both  parts  began  on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar ; 
and  both  were  repeated. 

The  Gliaconne,  (Ital.  Giaccona),  generally  supposed  to  be 
of  Basque  origin^  consisted  of  a  single  slow  Strain,  in  f,  or 
■|  Time,  four  or  eight  bars  in  length,  beginning  on  the  first 
beat  of  the  bar,  and  followed  by  a  series  of  Variations, 
usually  very  numerous,  and  almost  always  built  upon  a 
Ground  Bass — i.e.  a  Bass  in  which  the  same  notes  were 
constantly  repeated,  from  beginning  to  end.  Some  very 
fine  examples  will  be  found  among  the  Chamber  Music  of 
Handel  and  Bach. 

The  Bassecaille,  (Ital.  Passacaglia),  closely  resembled  the 
Chaconne,  in  style,  and  construction ;  but  its  Tempo  was 
slower,  its  single  Strain  frequently  began  on  the  third  beat 
of  the  bar,  and  its  Variations  were  not  always  built  upon  a 
Ground  Bass. 

The  Gavotte,  (Ital.  Gavotta),  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
Dauphine.  The  Tune  consisted  of  two  Strains,  in  Common 
Time,  with  two  beats  in  the  bar,  as  indicated  by  the  barred 
Semicircle,  ;  each  phrase  beginning  and  ending  at  the 
half-bar.  Both  Strains  were  repeated;  and,  sometimes,  the 
first  modulated  to  the  Scale  of  the  Dominant.  The  Tempo 
was  that  of  a  danse  grave. 

The  Bourree  differs  from  the  Gavotte,  chiefly,  in  that  it  is 
written  in  Common  Time,  with  four  beats  in  the  bar,  as  in- 


The  Mttsetle,    The  Allemande.  489 


dicated  by  the  unbarred  Semicircle,,  Q  ;  and,  tliat  the  two 
Strains  of  which  it  consists  begin  on  the  fourth  beat  of  the 
bar,  and  end  on  the  third.  Its  Tempo  is  also  much  faster 
than  that  of  the  Gavotte ;  for  which,  nevertheless,  it  is 
frequently  mistaken,  through  neglect  of  the  rhythmic  differ- 
ences by  which  the  two  Dances  are  distinguished. 

The  term,  'Musette,  is  frequently  applied  to  a  second 
Gavotte,  or  Bourree,  written  upon  a  Drone  Bass,  and  used 
alternately  with  the  first,  after  the  manner  of  what  is  now 
called  a  ^  Minuet  and  Trio.^  The  name  is  derived  from  a 
kind  of  soft-toned  Bagpipe,  called  the  Musette,  or  Corne- 
muse  (Ital.  Corna-musa) ,  much  used  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Switzerland.  Handel  and  Bach  have  left  us  some  very 
beautiful  examples. 

The  Allemande,  (Ital.  Danza  Tedesca,  Germ.  Deiitscher 
Tanz),  is  of  three  different  kinds.  (1) .  The  first  is  a  Dance  of 
Swabian  origin,  in  |  Time  ;  the  parent  of  the  slow  Waltz,  or 
Landler,  danced,  by  our  Grandfathers,  and  Grandmothers, 
at  the  Waterloo  Ball,  to  the  delicious  little  Tunes  composed 
by  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and  Schubert.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  a  more  perfect  example  of  the  style  than 
Weber's  Waltz  in  the  First  Act  of  Ber  Freischiltz.  (2).  The 
second  is  a  species  of  lively  German  Contredanse,  in  J  Time. 
(3).  The  third — the  Terpsichorean  character  of  which  has 
been  hotly  denied — is  a  Tune,  in  Common  Time,  (q),  con- 
sisting of  two  Strains,  each  of  which  begins  with  one,  two, 
or  three,  short  starting  notes,  generally  Semiquavers.  The 
first  Strain,  generally  shorter  than  the  second,  modulates  to, 
and  ends  in,  the  Scale  of  the  Dominant,  or  Relative  Major ; 
and  the  second  ends  with  similar  passages  to  the  first, 
transposed  into  the  Scale  of  the  Tonic  or  principal  Key. 
Both  Strains  were,  as  usual,  repeated.  The  importance 
of  this  form,  in  the  Technical  History  of  Music,  is  infinitely 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  which  we  have  hitherto 


490 


The  Suite. 


had  occasion  to  describe.  In  tlie  Suites  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, it  is  usually  followed  by  a  Courante. 

The  Courante,  (Ital.  Corrente),  is  scarcely  less  significant, 
in  Technical  History,  than  the  Allemande ;  and,  like  it, 
consists  of  two  Strains,  with  the  usual  repetition,  the  first 
of  which,  generally  shorter  than  the  second,  ends  in  the 
Scale  of  the  Dominant,  or  Relative  Major,  while  the  second 
ends  with  the  same  passages,  transposed  into  the  original 
Key  :  only,  it  is  almost  always  in  f ,  or  f  Time. 

The  Air  et  Doubles  was  a  Melody ;  generally  in  two 
repeated  Strains,  the  first  of  which  modulated  to  the 
Dominant,  or  Relative  Major ;  but,  in  any  case,  followed 
by  a  series  of  Variations,  called  Doubles,  because  each  pair, 
written  in  a  more  advanced  Order  of  Counterpoint  than  its 
predecessor,  proceeded  in  notes  of  doubled  velocity.  Some 
Doubles  of  extraordinary  difiiculty,  founded  on  the  six.  notes 
of  the  Hexachord,  by  Dr.  John  Bull,  the  reputed  Composer 
of  Ood  save  the  King,  will  be  found  in  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Virginal  Booh;  but  the  finest  and  most  celebrated  example 
on  record  is,  the  last  Movement  of  Handel's  Eighth  Suite, 
in  E  Major — the  so-called  Harmonious  Blacksmith. 

Composers,  of  the  18th  century,  delighted  in  weaving 
four  or  five  of  these  Dance-Tunes  into  a  Suite ;  introducing 
them  by  a  Prelude,  followed  by  an  Allemande,  and  Courante ^ 
and  ending  with  a  Sarabande,  and  Giga,  a  Gavotte,  an  Air 
et  Doubles,  or  a  Tonal  Fugue,  Handel  and  Bach  have  left 
us  innumerable  Suites,  of  this  kind.  The  Overture  of  the 
18th  century — said  to  have  been  invented  by  Lulli,  but 
certainly  perfected  by  Handel — usually  began  with  an  intro- 
ductory Grave,  followed  by  a  Tonal  Fugue,  and  terminating 
with  a  Minuet,  or  other  Dance-Tune,  of  one  of  the  forms 
we  have  attempted  to  describe. 


The  Sonata, 


491 


Section  YII. — The  Epoch  op  the  Classical  Schools. 

(Illustrating  Chapters  XXIII. — XXX.) 

From  tlie  humble  elementof  the  Dance-Tune  was  developed 
the  great  Art -form  which  reached  its  culminating  point  in 
Beethoven^s  Ninth  Symphony.  Haydn's  development  of 
the  Sonata-form,  upon  the  lines  of  the  AUemande  and 
other  highly-organised  Dance-Tunes,  has  been  sufficiently 
described  at  pp.  267 — 269;  but,  only  with  reference  to  the 
hrst,  and  most  important  Movement  of  the  Sonata,  and  its 
orchestral  analogue,  the  Symphony.  The  Second  Movement 
was  an  Andante,  or  Adagio,  the  form  of  which  was  less 
strictly  defined,  and  subject  to  great  variety  of  treatment. 
The  Third  was  a  Minuet,  in  two  Strains,  followed  by  a 
Second  Minuet,  also  in  two  Strains,  analogous,  in  intention, 
to  the  Musette  added  to  the  Gavotte,  or  Bourree,  but  called 
the  Trio,  either  because,  in  certain  old  examples,  it  was 
written  in  three-part  harmony,  or,  because  it  formed  a.  third 
part  to  the  two  divisions  of  the  First  Minuet.  Both  the 
Strains  of  the  First  Minuet  were  repeated,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  Trio ;  and,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  latter,  the 
First  Minuet  was  played  through  again,  but,  in  the  form  of  a 
Da  Capo,  this  time,  without  the  repetition  of  the  two  Strains. 
The  Minuet  and  Trio  were  followed,  in  the  full  Sonata-form, 
by  the  Kondo,  or  Finale,  the  form  of  which  differed  from 
that  of  the  First  Movement,  chiefly,  in  that  its  leading  Sub- 
ject— always  complete  and  self-dependent — was  repeated, 
in  the  principal  Key,  not  only  at  the  Reprise,  but,  at  the 
end  of  every  great  section  of  the  Movement,  ex.  gr.  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  first  part,  and,  generally,  after  the 
termination  of  the  second,  also. 

The  Classical  Sonata,  properly  so-called,  was  a  Com- 
position written,  in  this  form,  for  one,  or  two  instru- 


492  TJie  Symphony ,     The  Concerto. 


ments :  ex.  gr.  a  Piano-forte,  alone ;  or,  a  Piano-forte  and 
Yiolin. 

The  Quartett  was,  virtually,  a  Sonata  for  two  Yiolins^ 
Viola,  and  Yioloncello.  When  there  was  no  Second  Yiolin, 
the  Composition  was  called  a  Trio.  When  written  for 
Piano-forte,  Yiolin,  and  Yioloncello,  it  was  called  a  Piano- 
forte  Trio. 

The  Syr)iioliony  was  a  Composition,  in  similar  form,  for 
the  full  Orchestra,  very  highly  developed,  and  abounding  in 
passages  of  rich  and  varied  Instrumentation. 

Beethoven,  in  his  later  Sonatas,  and  Symphonies,  fre- 
quently substituted,  for  the  Minuet,  a  Presto,  in  |,  or,  less 
generally,  f  Time,  which  he  called  the  Scherzo. 

The  Concerto  was  written  for  a  Solo  Instrument,  accom- 
panied by  the  full  Orchestra ;  and,  except  for  certain 
differences  rendered  necessary  by  the  alternation  of  the 
passages  written  for  the  principal  Instrument  with  those 
played  by  the  Band — technically  called,  the  8olo  and  Tutti 
passages — it  followed  the  Sonata-form  very  closely.  The 
chief  difference  lay  in  the  opening  Tutti,  in  which  all  the 
Subjects  of  the  First  Movement  were  presented,  in  their 
proper  Keys,  before  the  first  important  Solo  began.  There 
was  also  an  important  difference,  near  the  end  of  the  First 
Movement,  where  the  Orchestra  paused,  on  the  Chord  of 
the  S,  and  then  remained  silent,  while  the  Soloist  executed 
a  long  extempore  Cadenza,  in  which  he  introduced  all  the 
Subjects  of  the  Movement  by  turns.  The  Slow  Movement 
varied,  in  form,  like  that  of  a  Symphony.  There  was  no 
Minuet,  or  Scherzo ;  and  the  Finale  was  usually  in  the  Rondo 
form,  and  sometimes  introduced  another  extempore  Cadenza. 

The  Classical  Overture  very  much  resembled  the  First 
Movement  of  a  Symphony  j  only,  that  the  division  between 
the  first  and  second  parts  was  less  clearly  marked,  and  the 
first  part  was  not  repeated. 


The  influence  of  Beethoven.  493 


Tlie  Classical  Opera  discarded  the  Da  Capo;  but  the 
form  of  tlie  Airs^  Duets,  and  Finales,  was  still  very  regular, 
and  the  division  of  the  piece  into  Movements  complete  in 
themselves  was  scarcely  less  constant  than  in  the  time  of 
Handel. 

The  full  Orchestra  of  the  Classical  period  comprised  a 
stringed  band,  consisting  of  First  and  Second  Yiolins, 
Yiola,  Violoncello,  and  Contra-Basso  j  strengthened  by  two 
Flutes,  two  Oboes,  two  Clarinets,  two  Bassoons,  two,  or  four 
Horns,  three  Trombones,  two  Trumpets,  and  a  pair  of 
Tympani,  or  Kettle-Drums.  Sometimes,  a  Flauto  Piccolo 
was  added,  or  a  Corno  Inglese,  or  a  Corno  di  Bassetto,  or  a 
Double-Bassoon  [Contra-Fagotto) — as  in  Fidelio. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  later  works  of  Beethoven 
— more  especially  the  great  instrumental  productions  of 
his  Third  Period — might  possibly  lead  to  the  idea  that  his 
treatment  of  the  Sonata-Form  was  subversive.  But  it  was 
not  so.  He  simply  enlarged  the  scope  and  capabilities  of  a 
design  which  plainly  underlies  the  deepest  inspirations  of 
his  genius ;  developing  its  latent  powers  in  directions  pre- 
viously unexplored ;  expanding  its  resources  to  an  extent 
apparently  unlimited ;  but  never  relinquishing  his  grasp  of 
its  essential  features.  Thus,  for  the  intentionally  vague 
and  expectant  ^Introduction^  of  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  he 
frequently  substitutes  a  long  and  highly-developed  Move- 
ment. Where  Haydn  and  Mozart  take  no  pains  to  conceal 
the  sectional  arrangement  of  their  line  of  argument,  he 
binds  his  Subjects  so  closely  together  that  the  points  of 
junction  are  imperceptible.  The  sections  are  there.  But, 
the  whole  mass  of  matter  is  so  highly  organised  that  its 
articulations  appear  as  essential  elements  of  its  general 
contour.  The  Coda  is  no  longer  a  brief  prolongation  in- 
tended to  accentuate  the  close  of  the  Movement ;  but,  the 
presentation  of  the  leading  idea  in  a  new,  and  frequently 


494  ^'^^^  influence  of  Beethoven, 


quite  unexpected  liglit.  In  like  manner,  and  with  like 
intention,  lie  frequently  introduces  long  Episodes,  which, 
however  irrelevant  they  may  appear  at  first  sight,  always 
exercise  an  important  bearing  upon  the  development  of  the 
principal  idea.  Of  his  substitution  of  the  Scherzo  for  the 
Minuet  we  have  already  spoken ;  and  this,  too,  was  the 
product  of  a  well-considered  design.  A  Minuet  of  the  old 
unpretending  form  would  have  contributed  very  little 
towards  the  elucidation  of  the  great  problem  propounded, 
and  answered,  in  the  Ninth  Symphony.  Beethoven  availed 
himself  of  these  resources,  and  many  more,  in  the  Sonata, 
the  Overture,  the  Symphony,  the  Concerto,  the  Quartett, 
and  all  other  great  instrumental  pieces,  as  if  for  the  very 
purpose  of  demonstrating  the  infinite  elasticity  of  Haydn^s 
great  invention.  To  him,  therefore,  we  are  indebted,  not 
for  the  destruction  of  the  Sonata-Form,  but,  for  its  exposition 
in  the  most  perfect  state  of  development  it  has  yet  attained. 

Section  YIII. — The  Epoch  of  the  Imaginative  and 
Romantic  Schools. 

(Illustrating  Chapters  XXII.— XXXYII.) 

The  Imaginative  and  Eomantic  Elements  represent  the 
union  of  Music  with  Poetry.  Without  them.  Music  may 
be  likened  to  Undine,  as  she  appeared  on  the  evening  before 
her  heart  was  opened  to  the  all-absorbing  power  of  Love — 
a  Creature  of  ineffable  beauty,  but,  without  a  soul.  It  is 
by  their  inspiration  that  Art  has  achieved  its  most  glorious 
triumphs.  Their  presence  is  discernible,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  in  the  works  of  all  the  great  Composers,  from 
Palestrina'  downwards.  But,  it  was  Beethoven  who  first 
made  them  ruling  powers,  in  the  domain  of  Instrumental 
Music ;  and  Weber,  who  first  gave  them  dominion  over 
*  Consult  Palestrina's  Madrigal,  Alia  riva  del  Tebro. 


The  influence  of  Beethoven. 


495 


the  Opera.  It  is  important  that  the  distinction  between 
Imagination,  and  Romanticism,  should  be  very  clearly 
understood ;  and  the  line  which  separates  them  from 
Eealism — so  often  substituted  for  them  by  uninspired 
pretenders  — very  plainly  defined.  The  greatest  of  the 
great  very  rarely  descend  to  absolute  Realism.  Haydn^s 
Cock,  in  The  Seasons,  and  Beethoven's  Cuckoo,  in  the 
Pastoral  Symphony,  and  Mendelssohn's  Donkey,  in  the 
Midsummer  Nighfs  Dreara,  are  among  the  few  splendid 
exceptions  that  prove  the  value  of  the  rule.  The  Great 
Masters  appeal,  through  the  mysterious  sympathies  of 
sound,  to  the  soul  of  the  hearer — not  to  his  material  ear. 
But,  the  Imaginative  and  Romantic  Schools  do  not  make 
their  appeal  in  exactly  the  same  way.  The  method 
pursued  by  the  one  is  subjective;  that  adopted  by  the 
other,  objective. 

The  Imaginative  Composer  does  not — cannot — attempt 
to  paint  a  picture;  for,  the  Scenery  and  Action  of  his 
Tone-Poem  have  no  real  existence.  Drawn  entirely  from 
the  region  of  his  own  inward  vision,  they  can  be  com- 
prehended only  by  those  who,  led  by  resistless  power  of 
sympathy,  are  able  to  follow  him  into  that  region.  To 
these  alone  does  he  speak.  Powerless  to  communicate  his 
ideas  in  words,  he  expresses  them  in  Music;  enduing 
sound  with  all  the  passionate  utterances  denied  to  human 
language ;  and  leading  his  hearers  into  a  world  filled  with 
depths  of  Poetry,  accessible  only  to  those  who  can  think, 
and  feel,  and  suffer  with  him.  And  every  one  of  these 
kindred  spirits  understands  his  message,  though  none  can 
ever  tell  us  what  he  understands. 

The  Romantic  Composer,  on  the  other  hand,  paints  a 
picture,  which — however  highly  it  may  be  idealised, 
poetised,  transcendentalised  if  you  will — has,  or  may  have 
a  real  and  visible  prototype,  a  true  and  tangible  expression, 


49 6  The  infiiience  of  Beethoven. 


in  the  external  world.  He  paints  this  picture  with  the 
richest  colours  his  orchestral  palette  can  command; 
enchants  us  with  its  shimmering  beauty;  makes  us 
tremble  at  the  depths  of  its  fathomless  shadows ;  excites 
us  to  frenzy  with  a  crash  of  Drums  and  Trumpets  ;  or  fills 
us  with  a  nameless  horror,  as  the  Yiola  trembles  beneath 
the  long-drawn  sighs  of  the  muted  Violins.  And  we  see 
what  he  means  us  to  see,  as  plainly  as  if  the  Scenery  and 
the  Action  were  presented  to  our  bodily  eyes. 

Let  anyone  who  doubts  the  truth  of  what  we  have  said, 
compare  the  Scherzo  of  Beethoven^s  Seventh  Symphony 
with  the  Storm,  in  the  Sinfonia  pastorale.  No  human 
tongue  can  explain  the  meaning  of  the  first — one  of  the 
greatest  triumphs  of  the  pure  Imaginative  School.  No 
language  can  explain  the  depth  of  thought  enshrined  in 
those  awful  notes  sustained  by  the  Horns  in  that  wonderful 
episode  in  D  Major.  We  can  only  listen — and  understand. 
But,  the  Storm  we  can  see,  and  feel.  The  drenching  rain, 
the  rolling  thunder,  the  crash  of  the  hail,  make  them- 
selves evident  to  our  bodily  senses :  and  we  see  the 
rainbow — not  painted,  but,  with  the  light  of  Heaven 
shining  through  it. 

Beethoven  is  one  of  the  few  Great  Masters  who  have 
succeeded  in  writing  perfect  Dramatic  Music,  apart  from 
the  Stage.  Gluck,  first,  and,  in  later  times,  Weber,  and 
Spohr,  and  Marschner,  Gounod,  and  Wagner,  and  other 
gifted  geniuses,  devoted  their  chief  attention  to  its  union 
with  the  legitimate  Musical  Drama.  And  thus  it  happens 
that  we  find  magnificent  examples  of  it,  not  only  in  the 
Opera,  but,  in  the  Symphony,  the  Concert-Overture,  and 
even  the  Sonata.'' 

4  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  farther  are  recommended  to 
study  the  excellent  article,  EoilANTic,  in  Sir  George  Grove's  Dictionary 
of  Music  and  Musicians. 


The  Leading 'Theme, 


497 


Section  IX. — The  Latest  Form  of  Technical 
Development. 

(Illustrating  Chapter  XXXVII.) 

Yet  one  more  form  of  teclinical  development  claims  our 
attention,  before  we  close  our  brief  Synopsis  of  its  history. 

In  the  Overture  to  11  Bon  Giovanni,  Mozart  presents  us 
with  the  phrase,  which,  in  the  last  Finale,  announces  the 
appearance  of  the  terrible  Statue.  In  the  Overture  to 
Die  Zauherflote,  he  introduces  the  Masonic  Signal  which 
gives  the  tone  to  the  entire  Drama.  In  the  Overture 
to  Der  FreischutZj  Weber  introduces  the  weird  passage 
which  invariably  announces  the  presence  of  the  Fiend, 
Zamiel.  Modern  critics  apply  the  name  '  Leading-Theme ' 
(Germ.  Leit-Motif)  to  a  passage  thus  employed;  and  the 
employment  of  such  passages  is,  at  the  present  moment, 
almost  universal,  in  Music  of  all  kinds. 

This  increased  demand  for  the  Leading-Theme  is  due 
to  the  influence  of  Wagner,  who  has  used  it,  more 
especially  in  his  later  Operas,  with  striking  effect.  We 
can  scarcely  illustrate  his  employment  of  the  device 
more  clearly  than  by  calling  attention  to  the  opening 
phrase  of  the  Instrumental  Prelude  iu  Tristan  und 
Isolde.  This  ravishingly  beautiful  passage,  three  bars 
only  in  length,  is  so  closely  interwoven  into  the  dramatic 
texture  of  the  story,  that  it  occupies  the  listener's  mind 
from  the  first  moment,  to  the  last;  and  the  skill  with 
which  it  is  combined  with  other  Themes,  and  made  to 
contribute,  with  them,  to  the  polyodic  richness  of  the 
Orchestral  Accompaniments,  is  simply  marvellous.  This 
polyodic  treatment  of  phrases  such  as  that  of  which  we 
are  speaking,  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
Wagner's  style — technically  speaking,  the  most  charac- 
teristic of  all  ;   for  he  weaves  them  together,  as  Bach 

K  k 


498 


Siegfried's  Tod. 


wove  his  Counter-Subjects,  with,  never-failing  ingenuity, 
and  always — and  this  is  the  point  on  which  sufficient  stress 
has  not  been  laid  by  his  analysts — always  with  an  effect  so 
striking,  that  the  true  expression  of  the  passage  cannot 
fail  to  be  understood,  even  by  those  who  have  not  troubled 
themselves  to  trace  the  involutions  of  the  Theme.  A  re- 
markable example  of  the  ingenious  use  of  certain  Themes, 
treated  after  the  manner  of  Counter- Subjects,  will  be  found 
in  the  Kiot- Scene,  in  Die  Meistersinger.  But,  perhaps  the 
finest  example  of  all  is,  Siegfried's  Tranermarsch,  in  the 
Gdtterddmmerung  ;  which  strikes  the  ordinary  listener  as 
one  of  the  most  plaintive  wailings  for  the  Dead  that  ever 
were  imagined ;  and,  when  its  ^  Leading-Themes '  are  un- 
ravelled, reveals,  to  the  dramatic  stndent,  the  whole  career 
of  Siegfried,  from  his  childhood  to  his  early  death. 

It  is  manifest,  that  such  a  system  as  this  can  only  be 
manageable  in  the  hands  of  an  inspired  Master.  In  those 
of  an  imitator,  the  '  Leading-Themes '  serve  no  better 
purpose  than  that  of  labels,  used  for  the  purpose  of 
distinguishing  one  character  from  another. 


INDEX 

AND 

CHEONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


K  k  2 


INDEX 


AND 

CHEONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


A. 

Aaron,  (or  Aron),   Pietro  {flor. 

circa  1510—1540],  482. 
Abel,  Karl  Friedricli  (Viola  da  Gam- 

bist),  [1725—1787]. 
Abel,  Thomas  [06. 1540],  79. 
Ahencerrages,    Les  (Cllerubini's), 

[1813],  381. 
Ahhandlung  von  der  Fuge  (Mar- 

purg's),  [1753.  1754.  1756]. 
Ahschied     Symphonic  (Haydn's), 

[1779],  263. 
Ahu  Hassan   (Weber's),  [1811], 

335. 

Abuses  in  Cliurcli  Music,  61 — 65. 
73-74. 

Academic  Royale  de  Musiquc,  L' 

[1669—],  160—161.  295  ct  seq. 
*  Academy  of  Antient  Musicke,'  The 

[1710—1792],  198. 
Academy   of   Music,   The  Eoyal 

[1720—1728],  230—232. 
Academy   of  Music,   The  Royal 

[founded  1822],  472  {note). 
Accent  (or  Cantus),  of  the  Epistle, 

Gospel,  and  Prayers,  480. 
Aci  e  Galatea  (Handel's),  [1708], 

225. 

Acis    and     Galatea  (Handel's), 
[1720],  230.  233. 


Adam,  Adolphe  Charles  [1803 — 
1856],  417. 

Adam  de  Fnlda  (Polyphonist), 
[1460— 1537. P]. 

Adam  de  la  Hale  (Troubadour), 
[1240— 1287. P]. 

Adami,  Andrea  (Historian  of  the 
Sistine  Choir),  [1664—1742]. 

Adams,  Thomas  (celebrated  Or- 
ganist), [1785—1858]. 

^schylus  [B.C.  525—456],  6.  7. 
477. 

AfricainCy  V  (Meyerbeer's),  [1865], 

424—425. 
Agazzari,  Agostino  (Polyphonist)' 

[1578—1640]. 
Agnus  Dei  (of  the  Mass),  The,  480. 
Agricola,  Ale2>ander  [circa  1470 — ■ 

1530],  55, 
Agrippind  (Handel's),  [1708],  224. 
Aicliinger,  Gregor  (Polypbonist), 

[1565—1620]. 
Air   et  Doubles,  The   (Air  with 

Variations),  263.  490. 
Albreclitsberger,    Johann  Georg 

[1736—1809],  308. 
Jte^e(Gluck's),  [1767],  254. 
Alcestes  (of  Enripides),  [b.c.  438], 

7. 

Alchymist,  Der  (Spohr's),  [1830 J, 
346. 


502  Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


Alcina  (Handel's),  [1735],  232. 
Alcock,   Dr.   John  [1715—1806], 
320. 

Aldrich,  The  Yery  Rev.  Dr.  Henry 

[1647—1710],  187. 
Alessandro  (Handel's),  [1726],  231. 
Alexander  JBalus  (Handel's),  [1743], 

234. 

Alexander's     Feast  (Handel's), 

[1736],  234. 
Alfonso  und  Estrella  (Schubert's), 

[1822],  330. 
Alfred  (Arne's),  [1740],  312. 
Ali  Baha   (Cherubini's),  [1833], 

381.  383. 
Alia  Tnnita  heata,  12 i. 
Allegri,     Gregorio  [1588—1652], 

100.  483. 

Allegro,  II  Penseroso,  ed  II  Mode- 
rato,  r  (Handel's),  [1740],  235. 

Allemande,  The,  267.  489. 

Allison,  Richard  [16th  and  17th 
centuries],  92. 

Almira  (Handel's),  [1705],  223— 
224. 

Alypius  \_flor.  a.d.  115],  8. 
Amadigi  (Handel's),  [1715],  228. 
Amati,  Andrea  [1520—1577],  135. 
Amati,  Antonio  [1565—1620],  135. 
Amati,  Geronimo,  135. 
Amati,  Niccolo  (the  Elder),  135. 
Amati,    Niccolo    (the  Younger) 

[1596—1684],  136. 
Ambros,  August  Wilhelm  [1816 — 

1876],  V.  54.  73, 
Ambrose,  Saint  [340—397],  15. 
Ambrosian  Chaunt,  The,  17. 
Amen  Chorus  (Handel's),  245.  484. 
Ammeto  (Handel's),  [1727],  231. 
Amphion  Anglicus  (Dr.  Blow's), 

[1700],  178. 
Anacreon  (Cherubini's),  [1803],  38l. 
Anerio,  Felice  [1560— 1630  .P],  60. 
Anerio  Francesco  [1567 — 1606  ?], 

60. 


Anfossi,   Pasquale  [1729—1797], 
385. 

Anglican  Chant,  The,  86. 175—176. 
Anima  e  del  corjoo,  La  Rappresen- 

tazione  delV  [1600],  102.  125— 

128. 

Animuccia,     Giovanni    [1500? — 

1571],  58.  124. 
Answer   {Comes),   of    the  Tonal 

Fugue,  484. 
Anthem,  English,  The  Full,  482. 
Anthem,  The  Yerse  [17th  century], 

176—177. 
Anthems,  The  Chandos  (Handel's), 

[1718-1720],  230. 
Antihuffonistes,  The,  257. 
AntiQone  (of  Sophocles),  [circa  B.C. 

450],  7. 

Aittigone  (Mendelssohn's),  [1841], 
356. 

Antiphon  (Fi\Antienne),16. 62. 479. 
Antiphonarium  Romanum,  16.  88. 
480. 

Antistroplies  of  the  Greek  Chorus, 
478. 

Appoggiatura,  Modern  use  of  the, 
210. 

Archadelt,  Jacques  [circa  1400 — 

1560],  55. 
Archiliuto,  The,  131—132. 
Arezzo,   Guido   d'   [ch^ca  1000  — 

1050],  27—30. 
Aria  d'agilitd,  The,  250. 
Aria  agitata^  The,  250. 
Aria  di  bravura,  The,  250. 
Aria  cantabile,  The,  249. 
Aria  concertata,  The,  250. 
Aria  dHmitazione,  The,  250. 
Aria  infariata,  The,  250. 
Aria  di  mezzo  carattere,  The,  249. 
Aria  di  nota  e  parola,  The,  250. 
Aria  parlante,  The,  250. 
Aria  di  portamento,  The,  249. 
Aria  senza  accomjyag name7tto,  The, 

250. 


Index  and  Clu^onoloo^ical  Table, 


503 


Aria  di  strepito,  The,  249. 
Aria  alV  unisono,  The,  250. 
Arianna,  or  Ariadne  (Handel's), 

[173-iJ,  232. 
Arianna    (Monteverde's),  [1607], 

107—109. 
Ariodante  (Handel's),  [173.5],  232. 
Ariosti,  Attilio  [1660—1730?],  231. 
Aristides  Qnintilianus  \_Jlor.  a.d. 

110],  8. 

Aristoxenus  [flor.  a.d.  .300],  8. 
Armide  (Gluck's),  [1777],  257. 
Arminio  (Handel's),  [1737],  232. 
Arne,    Dr.     Thomas  Augnstine 

[1710—1778],  311  et  seq. 
Arne,  Master  [1733],  312. 
Arnold,  Dr.  Samuel  [1740—1802], 

473. 

Aron,  Pietro   [_flor.  circa  1510 — 

1540],  482. 
Arpa  (Harp),  The,  132.1-34. 
Arpichorduyn,  The,  134. 
Artamene  (Gluck's).  [1743],  251— 

2.52. 

Artaserse  (Gluck's),  [1741],  251. 
Artaxerxes  (Arne's),  [1762],  313 — 
314. 

Arthur,  King  (Purcell's),  [1691], 
184. 

Artificial  Voices,  Soprani,  and 
Contralti,  249. 

Artusi,  Giovanni  Maria  (Contra- 
puntist), [flor.  1600]. 

Ascanio  in  Alba  (Mozart's),  272. 

Asses'  marks  {Signa  asinina),  482. 

Astorga,  Emanuele  d'  [1681 — 
1736],  198. 

Afalanta  (Handel's),  [1736],  2.32. 

Athaliah  (Handel's),  [1733],  234. 

Athens,  Dramatic  Performances  at, 
5  et  seq.  477 — 179. 

Atterbury,  Luffmann  [06.  1796—], 
432. 

Attwood,  Thomas  [1767—1838], 

101. 4.32. 


Atys  (Lulli's),  [1676],  160. 
Atys  (Piccini's),  [1780],  293. 
i  Anber,   Daniel    Francois  Esprit 
i      [1782—1871],  41.5—416. 
Augustine,   Saint  (Hymnologist), 

[354—430]. 
Authentic  Modes,  The,  17  {note). 
Ave  gloriosa  Mater  [13th  century], 
46.  75. 

Axur,  Re  d'  Ormus  (Salieri's  Ta- 
rare),  276. 

B. 

B,  the  German  name  for  B^,  the 
B  molle  of  the  Hexachord,  q.v. 

B  durum,  vel  B  quad  rat  uni  {B 
mi.  Bij.  In  German,  H).  See 
Hexachord. 

B  molle,  vel  B  rotundum  {B  fa 
Bq.  In  German,  B).  See  Hexa- 
chord. 

'  Baal-worship  in  Art.'  (The  Prince 
Consort's  note),  365 — 366, 

I  Babylon,  The  Fall  of  (Spohr' a  Ber 

1      Fall  Babylons),  [1842],  346. 

I  Bacchius  \Jlor.  a.d.  40],  8. 

I  Bach,  Johann  Sebastian  [1685 — 
1750],  239  et  seq.  303—304. 

'  Bach.  Johann  Ambrosius  [1645— 

I      1695],  239. 

I  Bach,  Johann  Christoph  (Uncle  of 
J.  S.  B.),  [1645—1693],  238—239. 
Bach,  Johann  Christoph  (Brother 
of  J.  S.  B.),  [1671—1721].  239— 
240. 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich 
(Son  of  J.  S.  B.),  [1732—1795] 
214. 

Bach,    Johann  Christian  [1735 — 
j      1782],  244—287 
'  Bach,  Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  [1714 
i     —1788],  244.  267.  286. 
1  Bach,'\Vilhelm  Friedemann  [1710 — 
'      1784],  244. 


504  Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


Bach  and  Handel  compared,  244 — 
245. 

Bach    Choir,  The   [1875—].  68. 
{iiote). 

Bach  Society,  The  [founded  1849], 
444. 

Bach's  style  of  Part- writing,  224 — 
245. 

Bagpij^es,  The,  134. 

Bai,  Tommaso  [05.  1713]. 

Baini,  The  Abbe  Giuseppe  [1775— 

1844],  73. 
Balfe,  Micheel  [1808—1870],  436. 
Ballad  Opera,  The  English,  31 5. 
Sallet  comique  de  la  Royne  [1581], 

148.  150. 

Barbiere  di  Siviglia,  II  (Rossini's), 

[1816],  393. 
Bardi,  Giov.,  Conte  di  Yesnio  [16th 

and  17th  centuries],  103.  125. 
Barnard,TheEev.J.[/or.l641],163. 
Barnett,  John,  437—438. 
Bars,  The  first  use  of,  105. 
•  Bassanello,  The,  133. 
Bassiron,  Philipp  [15th  century]. 
Basso  contlnuo,  102.  483. 
Bassoon,  The,  133. 
Bassoon,  The  Double,  133. 
Bass-Pommer,  The,  133. 
Bates,  Joah  [1740—1799],  440. 
Bateson,  Thomas  [/lor.  1640],  80. 
Baton,  First  use  of  the,  in  Eng- 
land [1820],  347. 
Battishill,  Jonathan  [1738—1801], 

101,  320—321. 
Battista,    San    Giovanni  (Stra- 

della's),  [1670  ?],;154— 155. 
Bayreuth,  The    new   Theatre  at 

[opened  1876],  460. 
Beard,  John  (celebrated  Tenor), 

[1717—1741]. 
Beatrice  diTenda  (Bellini's), [1833], 

390. 

Becker,  Carl  Ferdinand  [1804— 
J  877],  357. 


Beethoven,  Ludwig  van  [1770— 
1827],  279  et  seq.,  287,  308. 

Beethoven's  modifications  of  the 
Sonata-Form,  268—269.  493— 
494. 

Beethoven's  three  Styles,  280 — 
283. 

Beggar's  Opera,  The  [1727],  314— 
315. 

BeherrscJier  der  G-eister,  Ber  (We- 
ber's), [1811],  335. 

Bellini,  Yincenzo  [1802—1835],  389 
—390. 

Belmont  und  Gonstanze  (Mozart'y), 

[1782],  274—275. 
Belshazzar  (Handel's),  [1745],  234. 
Benda,  Georg  [1721—1795],  397. 
Benedict,  Sir  Julius  [1804—1885], 

338  {note),  340  {^note),  349.  438— 

439. 

Benedictus  (of  the  Mass),  The,  480. 
Benet,  John  \_fior.  1599],  80.  92. 
Benevoli,  Orazio  [05.  1672]. 
Bennett,   Sir  William  Sterndale 

[1816—1875],  288.  442—446. 
Benvenuto  CeZ^^w^(Berlioz's],[1838], 

428. 

Berenice  (Handel's),  [1737],  232. 
Berger,  Ludwig  [1777—1838],  349. 
^er(7yew^,i)er(Spohr's), [1825], 345. 
Beriioz,  Hector  [1803—1869],  310, 

427—428. 
Bernabei,   Giuseppe   Ercole  \_0h. 

1690]. 

Bernacchi,  Antonio  [1790—1756], 
386. 

Berton,    Henri   Montan    [1767 — 

1842],  299. 
Beza,  Theodore  [1519—1605],  90. 
Bianchoys,  Egydius  ri5th  century], 

53. 

Biographie  universelle  des  Musi- 
ciens  (Fetis's),  [1835—1844],  v. 

Birmingham  Festival,  The,  353. 
365.  442. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table.  505 


Birthday    Ode,    The  (Handel's), 

[1713],  227. 
Biscroma  (the  Semiquaver),  34. 
Bishop,  Sir  Heury  Eowley  [1786 — 

1855],  434—436. 
Bitterolf,  39. 

Bizet,  Georges  [1838—1875],  426. 

Blacksmith,  The  ILarmonious  (Han- 
del's), [1720],  230. 

Blondel  de  Nesle  [12th  century],  53. 

Blow,  Dr.  John  [1648—1708],  165. 
177—178. 

Bluebeard  (Kelly's),  [1798],  433. 

Boccherini,  Luigi  [1740—1809]. 

Boetius,  Anitius  Manlius  Torqua- 
tus  Severinus  [a.d.  476 — 525], 
23. 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Adrien  [1775  — 

1834],  300—301. 
Boito,  Signor  Arrigo,  453  {note). 
Bomhardon,  The,  133. 
Bordoni,  Faustina  (Signora  Hasse), 

[1700—1783],  231.  248.  386. 
Borromeo,  S.  Carlo,  59. 
Bourgeois,  Louis  [  iior.  1561],  90. 
Bourree,  The,  267.  488—489. 
Bow  Thine  Ear  (Byrd's),  81. 
Boy-Bishop  of  Salisbury,  The,  120. 
Boyce,  Dr.  William  [1710—1779], 

187.  320. 

Braham,  John  [1774—1856],  342. 
434. 

Brahms,  Herr  Johannes,  290.  412. 

Branle  (Eng.  Braiol),The,2Q1 .  488. 

Brauty  DesJ'dgers  {Der Freischutz), 
[1821],  336. 

Braiit  von  Messina,  Die  (Schu- 
mann's), 371. 

Brescian  Violins,  135. 

Breve,  First  use  of  the,  34. 

Brimle,  Richard  [16th  century],  91. 

British  Museum,  Library  of  the,  48 
{note),  76. 

Broadwood,  Messrs.  John,  and 
Sons,  140.  286. 


Broschi,    Carlo    {detto  Farinelli), 

[1705—1782],  387. 
Brossard,   Sebastian   de   [1660 — 

1730]. 

Bruch,  Herr  Max,  290.  412. 
Brumel,  Antonius  [15th  century], 
Buffonistes,  The,  257. 
Bull,  Dr.  John  [1563—1628],  80. 
490. 

Bulow,  Herr  Hans  von,  290. 
Buononcini,  Giovanni  Maria  [1640 

—1678],  385. 
Buononcini,  Marc  Antonio  [1675 — 

1726],  385. 
Buononcini,     Giovanni  Battista 

[1672—1750  .P],  231.  385. 
Burger  Poesie,  40. 
Burcey,  Dr.  Charles  (1726—1814], 

iv.  124.  30  {note). 
Buxtehude,  Dietrich  [1637—1707], 

239.  240. 
Byrd,  William  [1538—1623],  80. 


C. 

Caccini,  Giulio  [1558—1640],  102 
—103. 

Cadences,  Ancient  and  Modern, 

100  {note). 
Cadenza{ot  the  Classical  Concerto), 

492. 

Cadiita  de'  Giganti,  La  (Gluck's), 

[1745],  252. 
C<'x3cilian    Society,  The  [founded 

1785],  440. 
C«T[3sura  (a  point  of  repose,  sepa- 
rating two  clauses  of  a  musical 

l^hrasc),  481. 
Caffarelli  (GaetanoMajorano  detto), 

[1703—1783],  198. 
CafFaro,     Pasquale  (Composer), 

[1708—1787]. 
Caldara,    Antonio  [1678—1768], 

193.  194. 


5o6  Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


Caletti  Bruui  {v.  Cavalli),  115. 
Cidife  de  Bagdad^  Le  (Boieldieu's), 

[1800],  301. 
Callcott,  Dr.  John  WaU  [1766— 

1821],  101. 
Calvin,  John,  Condition  of  Hymn- 

odj  under,  90. 
Cambert,  Robert  [1628—1677],  160. 

295. 

Canis,  Cornelius  [16th  century]. 
Cannons,  the  seat  of  James,  Duke 

of  Chandos,  229. 
Canon,  Euclid's  Section  of  the,  9. 
Canon  (or  Limited  Eeal  Fugue), 

47.  480—482. 
Canons,  Enigmatical,  481.  482. 
Canons,  Ingenious,  81.  481—482. 
Cantata,  The,  104.  483. 
Cantatas,  Bach's  Church,  89.  241, 

304. 

Canterbury  Pilgrims,  The  (Dr. 
C.  Y.  Stanford's),  [1884],  452 
{nute). 

Cantiones  Sacrce,  (by  Tallis,  and 

Byrd),  [1598],  81.  88. 
Canto  fermo,  51 — 52. 
Cantus  fictus,  482. 
Cantus  mensurahilis,  34. 
Cantus  planus,  17. 
Capella,  Martianus  \Jlor.  a.d.  479], 

8. 

Capellini,M.ichelagnoio  [/or.  1627], 
129. 

Capulettie  Montecchi,  J  (Bellini's), 

[1830],  389. 
Carafa,  Michele  [1785—  ?],  419. 
Cardinals,    The    Commission  of 

[1564],  65—68. 
Carestiui,  Giovanni  [1705 — 1758], 

386. 

Carissimi,  Giacomo  [1604 — 1674], 

152—153. 
Carmen  (Bizet's),  [1875],  426. 
Carols,  Mediaeval,  88—89. 
Caron,  Firmiu  [15th  century],  53. 


Carpentrosso,  Eliziario  Genet  detto 
II  (Polyphonist),  [15th  and  16th 
centuries]. 

Castor  et  Pollux  (Bameau's),  [1737], 
204. 

Catalani,  Angelica  [1779—1849], 
387. 

Catch  Club,  The  [founded  in  1761], 
320. 

Catel,  Charles  Simon  [1773—1830], 
302. 

Cathedral  Music  (Dr.  Arnold's, 
[1784],  473. 

Cathedral  Music  (Dr.  Boyce's), 
[1760—1778],  187.  320. 

Catley,Miss  Anne(Popular  Singer), 
[1745—1789]. 

Causton,  Thomas  [0Z>.  1569],  91. 

Cavaille-CoL,  Mons.  (Organ-build- 
er), 147. 

Cavaliere,  Emilio  del  [1550—1600], 

102  et  seq. 
Cavalli,  Pietro  Francesco  [1599 — 

1676],  115—116. 
Cavatina,  The,  250. 
Cecchina,   La   (Piccini's),  [1760], 

293. 

Cembalo,  The,  132.  139—141.  284. 
Cenerentola,  La  (Eossini's),  [1817]. 
Cerone,  Domenico  Pietro  [1566 — • 

1613  ?],  482. 
Cesti,  P.  Marc  Antonio  [1620— 

1669],  116—117. 
Chaconne,   The   (Ital.  Ciaccona), 

488. 

Chandos  Anthems,  The  (Handel's), 

[1718—1720],  230. 
Chandos,  James,  Duke  of,  229. 
Chansons  populaires,  41. 
Chant,  The  Anglican,  86.  175— 

176. 

Chapel  Ro3^al,  Choir  of  the,  165  et 
seq.,  233. 

Charlemagne,  The  Emperor  [0^». 
814],  10  {note). 


Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


Charles  II.,  King  (Coronation  An- 
thems), [1661],  166—167. 

Chaucer  MS.,  The  [13th  century], 
76. 

Cherubini,  Ltjigi  Carlo  Zaxobi 

Salvadore  Maria  [1760—1842], 

377—383. 
Chezy,  Fran  von,  331.  338—339. 
Child  (or  Chylde),   Dr.  William 

[1606—1697],  165. 
Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  165 

et  seq.,  233. 
CJiitarone,  The,  132. 
Chivalry,  The  Laws  of,  41. 
Choir,  The  Papal,  45.  53.  58.  66. 
Chopin,    Frederic    [1809  —  1849], 

289. 

Chorale,  The  German,  89.  303.  304. 

Choral  Symphony^  The  (Beet- 
hoven's), [1824]  ,'280. 

Choristers,  Captain  Cooke's  [17th 
centnry],  165  et  seq. 

Choron,  Alexandre  Etienne  [1771 — 
1834]. 

Chorus  (xopos)  of  Greek  Tragedy, 

477—478. 
Christians,  Mnsic  of  the  early,  14 

et  seq. 
Christies  (Liszt's),  451. 
Christus  (Mendelssohn's),  [1847], 

367. 

Christus  am  Oelherge  (Beethoven's), 
[1803].  280. 

Chromatic  Genus,  The  Greek,  12 
(and  note). 

Chromatic  Intervals  and  Progres- 
sions, 210.  348. 

Chrysostom,  Saint  (Hymnologist), 
87. 

Church  Cantatas,  Bach's,  89.  241. 
304. 

C'/cZ,  Le  Grand  (Mons.  Massenet's), 

[1885],  451  {note). 
ClMAROSA,  DOMENICO  [1749 — 1801], 

372—377. 


Circle,   and   Semicircle,   used  as 

Time-Signatures,  35. 
Cithara,  The  Greek,  7. 
Civitas  sancti  tui  (Byrd's),  81. 
Clari,  Giovanni  Carlo  Maria  [1669 

—1750.?],  195.  385. 
Clarino  (a  form  of  the  Trumpet], 

132. 

Clarke,  Jeremiah  [Ob.  1707],  186. 
Claudius  Ptolomy  [Jlor.  a.d.  130], 
8. 

Clavecin,  Le  (The  Harpsichord), 

134.  139—141.  284. 
Clavicembalo,    or  Gravicembano, 

The,  132,  139—141. 
Clavichord  {Clavier,  or  Clavicijthc- 

rivm),  The,  134.  143—145.  221— 

222. 

Clavier  (The  Clavichord),  143— 
144. 

Claviorganum,  The,  134. 

Clefs  {Claves),  Origin  of  the,  33. 

Clemens  non  Papa  (Jacques  Cle- 
ment), [circa  1500 — 1555].  55. 

Clementi,  Muzio  [1752—1832], 
2b  7. 

Clemenza  di  Tito,  La  (Mozart's), 

[1792],  276. 
Clifford,  The  Rev.  James  [Jlor. 

1663],  171.  175. 
Clochette,  Le  son  de  la  [1581],  150. 
Club  Anthem,  The  [1664],  172— 

173 

Cobbold,  William  [Jlor.  1592],  80. 
Coda,  The,  268.  493. 
Codetta  (of  the  Tonal  Fugue),  The, 
484. 

Coeur  de  Lion,   Richard  [1157 — 

1199],  38. 
CcEur  de  Lion,  Richard  (Grctry's), 

[1784],  298. 
Colcnna,  Uiovauni  Paolo  [1610 — 

1695],  153. 
Colmnba  (Mr.  Mackenzie's),  [1883], 

452  {note). 


5o8 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Comala    (Herr    N.   W.  Gade's), 

[1846],  451  {note). 
Cumhattimento    di    Tancredi,  II 

(Mouteverde's),    [1624],  110— 

113. 

Come  if  you  dare  (Purcell's),  [1691], 
184. 

Comes  (The  '  Answer  '  of  a  Fugue), 
481.  484. 

Comique,  L' Opera,  295  et  seq.,  307. 

Common  Time,  35. 

Compere,  Loyset[15th  century], 55. 

Composition,  Scliools  of,  50. 

Comus  (Dr.  Arne's),  [1738],  312. 

Comus  (H.  Lawes's),  [1634],  165. 

Concerto,  The  Classical,  492. 

Concerto  drammatico  (Spohr's), 
[1815],  341. 

Concerto^  The  Hungarian  (Joa- 
chim's), 451  {note). 

Concerto  in  G  Minor  [1831],  (Men- 
delssohn's), 352. 

Concertos  (Beethoven's),  280. 

Concerts,  The  Crystal  Palace  [first 
organised  in  1855]. 

Concerts,  The  Gewandhaus  [origi- 
nated 1781],  305.  353.  360. 

ConcertSjThe  Philharmonic  [found- 
ed 1813],  347.  354.  357. 

Conradi,  Johann  \_fior.  1695],  306. 

Conradin,  Assassination  of  the 
Emperor  [1267],  39. 

Conservatorium  der  Musilc,  at 
Leipzig,  357.  359—364  {notes). 

Conti,  Francesco  Bartoloraeo,  [1681 
— 1732. P],  385. 

Conti,  Gioacchino  {detto  II  Giz- 
ziello,  famous  Singer),  [1714 — 
1761. 

Conti  (or  Contini)  Ignaz  (Com- 
poser), 1699—1759]. 

Contrahasso  (Double  Bass)  The, 
132.  138. 

Contralto  Voices,  Artificial,  386. 

Contrapuntal  devices,  53.  64.  69.  81. 


Contrejpoint   et  Fugue,  Cours  de 

(Cherubini's),  [1835J,  382.  383. 
Conversations-LexiJcon,  Musika- 

lisclies  (Mendel's),  [1870],  v. 
Convict,  The  (Imperial  Choristers' 

School  at  Vienna),  327. 
Convidado  di  Piedra,  El  (Tii'so  da 

Molina's),  181.  276.  373. 
Cooke,  Captain  Henry  \_0h.  1672], 

164  et  seq. 
Cooke,  Dr.  Benjamin  [1734—1793], 

432. 

Corelli,  Arcangelo  [1653—1713], 
196. 

Corna-musa,  The,  133. 

Cornet,    The    (used    in  English 

Church  Music),  167. 
Cornetto,  The,  132. 
Cost  fan  tutte  (Mozart's),  [1790], 

276. 

Costa,   Sir  Michasl  [1810—1883], 

439.  441. 
Cosyns,  John  \_flor.  1585],  92. 
Coucy,  Eaoul  Chatelain  de  [12th 

century],  38. 
Council  of  Trent, The  [1542—1564], 

58.  65. 

Counterpoint,  The  Five  Orders  of, 

52  {note). 
Counterpoint,  The  Invention  of, 

45. 

Counterpoint,  the  basis  of  modern 
Part- writing,  209  et  seq. 

Counterpoint,  Mendelssohn's  me- 
thod of  teaching,  361  et  seq. 
{note). 

Counterpoint,  Wilful  neglect  of,  in 

the  17th  century,  101.  156—157. 

210—211. 
Counter- Subject   (of    the  Tonal 

Fugue),  484—485. 
CourantCf   The    (Ital.  Corrente), 

490. 

Coussemaker,  Charles  Edward 
Henri  de  [1805—1876],  76. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table.  509 


Cousser,  Joliann  [1657—1727],  306. 
Craen,    ISTicolans  (PolyiDhonist). 

[15th  century]. 
Cramer,   John    Baptist    [1771 — 

1858],  288. 
Creation,  27ie  (Haydn's),  [1798-9], 

265. 

Credo  (of  the  Ma^s),  The,  480. 
Cremona  Violins,  135 — 137. 
Creyghton,  The   Eev.  Dr.  Robert 

[1639—1736],  187. 
Cristofori,  Baiiolomeo  Sj^^or.  circa 

1709—1731],  285. 
Croce,  Giovanni  della  [1560—1609], 

60.  100. 

Croft,  Dr.  William  [1677—1727], 
205.  319. 

Croma  (The  Lesser  Semiminim,  or 

Qnaver),  34. 
Crotch,  Dr.  William  [1775—1847], 

440. 

Crotchet,  or  Greater  Semiminim, 

First  use  of  the,  34. 
Crucifixion,  The  (Spohr's  Calvary), 

[1835],  346. 
Crnsades,  Music  in  the  time  of  the, 

41. 

Cruth,  Crowth,  or  Crowd,  The, 
131. 

Crystal  Palace  Concerts  [first  or- 
ganised in  1855]. 

Curte,  Jean  de  [15th  century],  53. 

Cuzzoni,  Francesca  (afterwards 
Mad.  Sandoni),  [1700—1770], 
231.  386.  • 

Czaar  und  Zimmermann  (Loiizing), 
[1837],  403. 

Czerny,  Carl  [1791—1857],  289. 

D. 

Da  capo^  First  use  of  the  (17th 

century),  158. 
Dafne  (M.  da  Gagliani's),  [1607], 

107. 


Dalayrac,   Xicolas  [1753—1809], 
302. 

Dame  Blanche,  La  (Boieldieu's), 

[1825],  301. 
'  Damon,  Der  (Herr  Anton  Eubin- 

stein's),  144  {7wte). 
Damon,  Guglielmo  [fior.   1579 — 

1591],  92. 
Danby,  John  [1757—1798],  432. 
•  Dance-Tunes  of  the  17th  and  18th  ' 

centui-ies,  267.  486—490. 
Dankerts,  Ghiselin  (Polyphonist), 

[16th  century]. 
Danse  Maccahre  (The   Dance  of 

Death),  143. 
Dcqihne  (Handel's),  [1706],  224. 
Dardanus  (Rameau's),  [1739],  204. 
David,  Felicien  [1810—1876].  358 

{7iote). 

David,  Ferdiiiand[1810— 1873],.357. 
Davidsbund  (Schumann's  S3^mbo- 

lical  Guild),  371. 
Davy,  John  [1765—1824],  318. 
Daye,  John  [Oi.  1584],  91. 
Deborah  (Handel's),  [1733],  234. 
Degree  of  Doctor  of  Music,  when 

first  used  in  England,  78. 
Deidamia  (Handel's),  [1741],  232. 
De  la  Rue,  Pierre  (Lat.  Petrus 

Platensis),  \_flor.  1500],  .55. 
Deniophon    (Cherubini's),  [1788]. 

378. 

Des  Pres,  Josquin  [Ob.  1521],  54. 
Deterioration  of  the  Musical  Drama, 

158.  247—251. 
Deutsche    Requiem    (Herr   J.  J. 

Brahms's),  451  {note). 
Deux  Journees,  Les  (Cherubini's), 

[1800],  .380—381. 
Devices  (in  the  Tonal  Fugue),  485 

—486. 

Devin  du  Village,  Le  (Rousseau's), 

[1752],  301. 
Dialogue,  as  employed  in  Greek 

Tragedy,  477 — 478. 


5IO  Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


Dialogue,  Spoken,  in  the  Opera, 

297.  313. 
Diaphonia,  26. 

Diatonic  Genus,  The  Greek,  12  (and 
note). 

Diatonic  Scale,  The  Modern,  11 
{note). 

Dibdin,  Charles  [1745—1814],  316 
—317. 

Dictionary  of  3fusic  and  3fusi- 

cians  (Sir  G.  Grove's),  17  {note), 

36  {note),  48  {note),  291. 
Dictionnaire   de   Musique  (Kous- 

seau's),  [1767.  1768],  iv. 
Dictionnaire  historique  des  Musi- 

ciens  (Choron's),  [1810—1811],  v. 
Dido  and  ^neas  (Purcell's),  [1675], 

179. 

Dido   and  JEneas   (Dr.  Arne's), 

[1734],  312. 
Didymus  [Jlor.  a.d.  60],  8. 
Dies  ircB,  88. 

Dionysus  {^lovvo-os,  the  Greek 
Bacchus),  477  (and  note). 

Discantus  (Fr.  Dechant.  Eng. 
Discant),  26. 

Discords,  Fundamental,  99.  210. 

Discords  of  Transition  and  Sus- 
pension, 99.  210. 

Discords,  Unprepared,  99.  210. 

Dithyrambic  Odes  of  Greek  Tra- 
gedy, 477. 

Ditters  von  Dittersdorf,  Karl  [1739 
—1799],  397. 

Do,  used  as  a  Substitute  for  Ut, 
28. 

DodecacJiordon     (of  Glareanus), 

[1547],  55.  482. 
Dolby,  Madame   Sainton  [1821 — 

1884],  152  {note),  364.  452  {note). 
Dolcian,  The,  133. 
Doles,  Johann  Friedrich  [1715 — 

1797],  397. 
Dominant,  in  the  Ecclesiastical 

Modes,  16—17  {notes),  86. 


Dominant,  in  modern  Music,  267. 
Dominant,  Modulation  to  the  Key 

of  the,  267. 
Dominant  Seventh,  First  use  of 

the,  98.  483  {note). 
Don  Giovanni,  II  {Mozsiri'fi),  [1787], 

276. 

Doni,  Giovanni  Battista  [1593 — 

1647],  iii.  108. 
Donizetti,  Gaetano  [1798—1848], 

390—391. 
Do7i  Juan,  oder  Das  steinerne  Gast- 

malil  (Gluck's),  [1761]. 
Don  Quioiote  (Sir  G.  A.  Macfar- 

ren's),  451  {note). 
Dorfharhier,  Der  (J.  A  Hiller's), 

[^circa  1780],  305. 
Double  Bassoon,  133. 
Double  Chant,  176. 
Doubles  (or  Variations  on  an  Air), 

263.  490. 

Douland  (or  Dowland)  John  [1562 

—1626],  80.  92.  94. 
Dragon  of  Wantley,  The  (Lampe's), 

[1737],  433. 
Dragonetti,     Domenico  (famous 

Contrabassist),  [1755—1846]. 
Drama,   Attempt  to  revive  the 

Music  of  the  Classical,  303— 

304. 

Drama,  The  Classical,  5.  463—464. 

477—479. 
Dramma  per  la  Musica,  The  true, 

103  et  seq.  252—259.  274.  463— 

470.  497—498. 
Dufay,  Guilielmus  [05.  1432],  53. 
Dulcimer,  The,  143.  286. 
Dulcken,    Madame   Louise  (cele- 
brated Pianiste),  1811—1850]. 
Dunstable,  John  of  [Oh.  1453],  78. 
Duparc,  Elizabeth  (called  La  Fran- 

cesina,  famous   Singer),  \_flor. 

1736—1746]. 
Dupuis,  Dr.  Thomas  Sanders  [1733 

—1796],  100  {note). 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Durante,  Francesco  [1684—1755], 
198. 

Diirastanti,   Margherita    [1695 — 

1750  ?]  386. 
Dussek.  Johann  Ludwig  [1761 — 

1812],  288. 
Dux  (the  Subject  of  a  Fugue),  481. 

484. 

Dvorak,  Anton,  412. 
Dygon,  John  (Poljphonist),  [06. 
1509]. 


E. 

Ecclesiastical  Modes,  The,  16 — 

17  [notes),  71  [note). 
Echo  et  iVarcme  (Gluck's),  [1779], 

258. 

Edwardes,  Richard  [1523—1566]. 
79—80. 

Egmont     (Beethoven's),  [1810], 
280. 

Egyptians,  Music  of  the,  4. 
Ehrenpforte,  Grundlage  einer  (Mat- 

theson's),  [1740],  iii.  223. 
Eight  Tunes,  Tallis's  [1567],  92. 
Elena  e  Paride  (G luck's)  [1769], 

254. 

Eli  (Sir  Michael  Costa's),  [1855], 
441. 

Elijah    (Mendelssohn's),  [1846], 
359.  365. 

Emilio  del  Cavalieri  [1550—1600], 
102. 

Emmett,  J.  G.  [1787—1847],  354 

{note). 

Emperor's  Hymn,  The  (Haydn's), 

[1797],  265. 
English  Dramatic  School,  The,  311 

—318.  433—441. 
English  Opera,  307,  313. 
English  Schools,   The,  1st,  2nd, 

3rd,   4th,  5th,  and   6th,  75— 

83. 


Enharmonic  Genus,  The  Greek,  12 

(and  note). 
Entfilhrung  aus  dem  Serail,  Die 

(Mozart's),  [1782],  274,  275. 
Episodes    (eTreio-ofiioi)    of  Greek 

Tragedy,  478. 
Episodes,  as  used  by  Beethoven  in 

the  Sonata-Form,  494. 
Episodes  of  the  Tonal  Fugue,  485. 
Eroica    Symphony  (Beethoven's), 

[1804],  280. 
Eschenbach,  Wolfram  von  [^flor- 

1207],  39. 
Esemplare,  ossia  Saggio  di  Conira- 

punto  (Martini's),  [1774— 1775]. 
Este  (or  Est),  Michael  [circa  1600— 

1638],  80. 
Este,  or  Est,  Thomas  [06.  circa 

1624],  92. 
Esterhazy,    Prince    Anton  \_0h. 

1794],  264. 
Esterhazy,  Count  Johann,  330. 
Esterhazy,  Prince  Nicolaus  ('  The 

Magnificent '),  \_0h.  1790],  262. 
Esterhazy,   Prince    Paul  Anton 

[06.  1762],  262. 
Esther  (Handel's),  [1720],  230.  233. 
Etheridge,  George  [16th  century], 

79. 

Euclid,  \Jlor.  circa  e.g.  277],  8.  9. 

Eumenides,  The  (Dr.  C.  Y.  Stan- 
ford's), [1885]. 

Euridice  (Caccini's),  [1600],  105. 

Euridice(Peri's),  [1600],  102. 105— 
106. 

Euripides  [b.c.  480—407],  7. 
Euryanthe  (Weber's),  [1823],  338— 
340. 

Evelyn's  Diary,  Extract  from,  169. 
Evesham,  Walter  of,  \circa  1240]. 
Exposition  (of  the  Tonal  Fugue), 
485. 

Exultet  ("sung  on  Holy  Thursday), 

The,  480. 
Ezio  (Handel's),  [1782],  232. 


512 


Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


F. 

Fa  Jictum  (the  mediasval  name  for 
B  molle,  wlien  iutrodnced  as  an 
'  Accidental '),  see  Hexacliord. 

Fage,  P.  de  la  [15tli  centaiy]. 

Faidit,  Guicelm  (Troubadour), 
[1199—124.0]. 

Fairy  Queen,  The  (Purcell's), 
[1692],  184 

FanisJca  (Cherabini's),  [1806],  381. 

Faramondo  (Handel's),  [1738],  232. 

Fariuelli,  (Carlo  Brosclii,  detto), 
[1705—1782],  387. 

Farrant,  Eichard  [05.  1580],  80. 

Faugues,  Yincenz  [15th  century], 
53. 

Faust  (M.  Gounod's),  [1859],  430. 
Faust  (Schumann's),  [1814—1853], 
369. 

Faust  (Spohr's),  [1818],  344—345. 
Faustina  Bordoni  (Signora  Hasse), 

[1700—1783],  231.  248.  386. 
Faux  bourdon.  Falso  hordone.  Fa 

hurden,  45 — 47.  62. 
Favorita,  La  (Donizetti's),  391. 
Fayrefas,  Dr.  Eobert  \fior.  1511], 

78—79. 

F  ay  olle,  Joseph  Marie[1774 — 1852], 

V. 

Feo,  Francesco  [1699—1750  ?],  199. 
Ferrabosco,  Domenico  [/?or.  cij'ca 
1550]. 

Ferrari,  Benedetto  \Jior.  circa  1638 

—1666],  115. 
Ferretti,    Giovanni    \_fior.  circa 

1580]. 

Festa,  Costanzo  [05.  1545],  56. 
Festgesang  (Mendelssohn's),  [1840], 
356. 

Festin  de  Pierre,  Le  (Moliere's), 

181,  276, 
Fete  de  Vane  120—123. 
Fetis,   Francois   Joseph   [1784 — 

1871],  V. 


Fevin,  Anton  de  [15th  century]. 
Fidelio  (Beethoven's),  [1805],  280. 
Fierahras    (Schubert's),  [1824], 
331. 

Field,  John  [1782— 1837],  287.  433. 
Fifths,  Consecutive,  210. 
Fifths,  Hidden,  210. 
Figaro,  Le  Nozze   di  (Mozart's), 

[1786],  275.  433  {note). 
Figured  Bass,  102.  483. 
Fille  du  Regiment,  La  (Donizetti's), 

391. 

Finck,  Heinrich  (Polyphonist).  [Jlor. 
1550]. 

Finck,    Hermann  (Polyphonist), 

liior.  1500]. 
Fingals     HoJile  (Mendelssohn's 

Overture),  [1832]. 
Fioravanti,  Valentino  [1 7  70 — 1837] , 

387. 

Fisher,  Abraham  [1744-1800],287. 
Flanel,  Egyd  [15th  century],  53. 
Flavio  (Handel's),  [1723],  231. 
Flemish  Schools,The  First,  Second, 

Third,  and  Fourth,  51—56. 
Fliegende  Hollander,  Der  (Wag- 
ner's), [1843],  456. 
Floridante  (Handel's),  [1721],  231. 
Florindo  (Handel's),  [1706],  224. 
Flotow,    Friedrich  Freiherr  von 

[1812—1883],  403,  404. 
Flute  a  hec.  The,  133. 
Flute,  The  (Ital.  Flauto.  Flauto 

traversa.    Flautino),  132—133. 
Flying  Lutcliman,  The  (Wagner's), 

[1843],  456. 
Folk-Songs,  41. 
Forde,  Thomas  [05.  1648],  80. 
Forkel,  Johann  Nikolaus  [1749— 

1818],  iv.  285  {note). 
*  Form,'  in  Composition  47.  51.  52. 

480  et  seq. 
Form,  The  Sonata,  267—269. 
Fornsete,  John  of  \_0h.  post  1226], 

46.  74. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


513 


Fortsch,    Johann     [1G52— 1708], 
306. 

Foundling  Hospital,  Handel  at  the, 
235. 

Fra  Diavolo  (Anber's),  [1830],  41 6. 
Franc,  Guillaume  [/or.  1545],  90. 
Franchinus  Gafnrius  [flor.  14-96], 
34.  44. 

Franck,  Johann  [circa  1680],  306. 
Franco  of  Cologne  [12th  century], 
34. 

Franco  of  Liege  [flor.  1060]. 
Franscesina,La(Elizabeth  Duparc), 

\Jlor.  1736—1746],  386. 
Frasi,  Madame  Giulia  [Jlor.  circa 

1743],  386. 
Frauenlob,  the  surname  of  Heinrich 

von  Meissen  [1260—1318],  39. 
Frederick  the  Great,  King  [1712 — 

1786],  242.  285. 
FreiscJiutz,  Der  (Weber's),  [1821], 

336—338.  349. 
Frescobaldi,     Girolamo     [1587 — 

1640],  195. 
Frohberger,   Johann   Jacob  \0h. 

1667],^  239. 
Fugue,  51—52.  102. 
Fague,  The  Orchestral,  268. 
Fugue,  Free,  or  Unlimited,  480 — 

481. 

Fugue,  Eeal,  480-482. 
Fugue,  Strict,  or  Limited,  481 — 
482. 

Fugue,  The  Tonal,  484—486. 
Fugues,  Sebastian  Bach's,  144.  245. 
Fux,  Johann  Joseph  [1660—1741], 
52  [note),  206—207,  208-209. 

G. 

Gabrieli,   Andrea   [1510 — 1586], 
60. 

Gabrieli,  Giovanni   [1557 — 1612], 
60. 

Gabussi,  Yincenzo  [Oh,  1846],  385. 


Gade,  Xiels  W.  [1817—],  412. 
Gafurius,  Franchinus  [1451 — 1522], 

34.  44.  47. 
Gngliano,   Marco   di   Zanobi  da 

[flor.  circa  16vX)],  107. 
Gaillard,  The   (Ital.  Gagliarda. 

Eng.  Galliard),  487—488. 
Galilei,  Galileo  [1564—1642],  103. 
GaUlei,  Yincenzo  [1533—1602?], 

103. 

Gallus,    Jacobus  (Polj'phonist), 

(Jacob  Handl),  [1550—1591]. 
Galuppi,  Baldassare,  [1706 — 1786]> 

194.  293.  385. 
Gamut,  The,  29—30  (and  notes). 
Garcia,  Manuel  del-Popolo-Yicente 

[1775—1832],  387. 
Garcia,    Manuel    (the  Younger), 

[1805—],  387. 
Garcia,  Maria  Felicita  (Madame 

Malibran),  [1808—1836],  387. 
Garcia,  Pauline  (Madame  Yiardot, 

celebrated  Singer),  [1821 — ]. 
Gauntlett,      Dr.     Henry  John 

(talented    Organist),  [1806— 

1876]. 

Gastoldi,  Giangiacomo  (Polypho- 

nist),  [flor.  circa  1590]. 
Gates,  Barnard  [1685—1773],  233. 
Gaudentius  [for.  a.d.  100],  8. 
Gavotte,  The  (Ital.  Gavotta),  267. 

488. 

Genera,  The  three,  12  {note). 
Generali,  Pletro  [1783—1832],  389. 
Genoveva    (Schumann's),  [1848], 
369". 

Gerber.ErnstLudwig  [1746—1819], 

V. 

Gerbert     von    Hornau,  Martin 

(Prince  Abbot  of  S.  Blasien), 

[1720—1793],  iv.  20. 
Gerson,  Chancellor  of  Notre  Dame 

[Jtor.  1408],  45. 
Gesang  der   Parzen   (Herr.  J.  J. 

Brahms's),  451. 

L  1 


514 


Index  ajid  Chronological  Table. 


Gesrhichte   der  europciisch-ahend- 

Vdndische  Musik  (Kiesewetter's), 

[1834],  V. 
GescJiichfe  der  Musik  (Fork el's), 

[1788.  1801],  iv. 
Geschichte  der  Mus'iJc  (Ambros's), 

[1862—1878],  V. 
Gcspenster    Gescliicliten^  (Apel's), 

336. 

Gesualdo,  Carlo,  Principe  di 
Venosa  (Composer),  \circa  1550 
—1613]. 

Gevaert,  FranQois  August  (Critic 

and  Historian),  [1828—]. 
Gibbons,  Dr.  Christopher  (Son  of 

Orlando),  [1615—1676],  165. 
Gibbons,  The  Eev.  Edward  (Brother 

of  Orlando),  [1570— 1652  F]. 
Gibbons,  Ellis  (Brother  of  Orlando), 

\flor.  circa  1600]. 
Gibbons,  Orlando  [1583—1625],  80. 

100. 

Gideoni^x.  W.G.  Cusins's),[1871], 
442. 

Giqa^  The  (Fr.  Gigue,  Eng.  Jig)^ 
487. 

Gigliucci,  The  Countess  (Miss  Clara 

Novello),  388. 
Giovanelli,  Buggiero  (Polyphonist), 

[1560—1615?]. 
Giovanni  Battista,  S.  (Stradella's), 

[1670?],  154-1.55. 
Giovanni, 11  Don  (Mozart's),  [1787], 

276. 

Giulio  Cesare  (Handel's),  [1724], 
231. 

Giustino  (Handel's),  [1737],  232. 

Gizziello,  vide  Conti. 

Glareanus,     Henricus  (Heinrich 

Loris,  or  Loritus),  [06. 1563],  55. 

482. 

Glee,  The,  101.  432. 
Gleemen,  39. 

Gloria  in  Excelsis  (The  '  Angelic 
Hymn '),  87.  480. 


Gloucester  Festival,  The,  442. 
Glover,  Howard  [1819—1875],  439. 
Gluck,     Christoph  Willibald, 

Bitter  von  [1714—1785],  251  et 

seq.,  294—295. 
God  save  the  King,  490. 
Goethe,  349. 

Goetz,    Hermann  [1840—1876], 

408—409. 
Golden  Age  of  Ecclesiastical  Music, 

The  [1565—1594],  72.  209. 
Golden  Spur,  Order  of  the, 254, 272. 
Goldwin,  John  [06.  1719],  187. 
Gombert,  Nicolaus  [16th  century], 

55. 

Goss,  Sir  John  [1800—1880],  432. 
Gossec,  Fran9ois  Joseph  [1733 — 

1829],  415. 
Gostling,  Bev.  John  [17th  century], 

183. 

Gotterd'dmmerung  (Wagner's), 

[1876],  457.  460. 
Gott  erhalte  Franz   den  Kaiser 

(Haydn's  Austrian  Hymn)  ,[1 79  7] , 

265. 

Goudimel,  Claude  \oh.  1572],  65. 

57  (and  note),  91  (and  note). 
Gounod,  M.  Charles  Francois,  429. 
Gradual  (of  the  Mass),  The,  479— 

480. 

G^-aduale,  Romanum,  480. 
Gradus  adParnassum  (Clementi's)^ 
287. 

Gradus   ad   Parnassum  (Fux's), 

[1725],  52  {note),  206.  209.  261. 

264.  271.  308.  383. 
Grand  Opera,  Le,  295  etseq. 
Graun,  KariHeinrich  [1701—1759], 

206—207.  208—209. 
Greco,  Gaetano  [1680— .P],  198. 
Greek  Music,  Pretended  examples 

of,  7-8. 

Greek  Scale,  Constitution  of  the,  9 

—10  {note). 
Greek  Theoretical  Writers,  8 — 9. 


Index  and  Ch7'ono logical  Table. 


515 


Greeks,  Miisic  of  the,  5  ei  seq. 
Greene,  Dr.  Maurice  [1696—1755], 

187.  205.  319. 
Gregorian  Chaunt,  17. 
Gregorian  Tones,  The,  18.  84—86 

(and  note). 
Gregory  the  Great,  Saint  [544 — 

604],  15. 

Gretry,  Andre  Ernest  Modeste 
[1741—1813],  298. 

Grisi,  Madame  Giulia  [1812— 
1869],  387. 

Grundllche  Amoeisung  zur  Compo- 
sition (Albrechtberger's),  [1790], 
308. 

Guarnerins,  Andreas  [Jlor.  1650  — 

1695],  136. 
Guarnerius,  Joseph  \Jior.  1690 — 

1730],  136. 
Guarnerius,  Joseph    (del  Gesu), 

[1683—1745],  136. 
Guarnerius,  Peter  (the  Elder),  [/Zor. 

1690—1735],  136. 
Guarnerius,  Peter  (the  Younger), 

\_flor.  1730—1755],  136. 
Guglielmi,  Pietro  [1727— 1804],  60. 

201. 

Guida   (the  Leading   Part  of  a 

Canon),  481. 
Guido  d' Arezzo  [circa  1000—1050], 

27—30. 
Guidonian  Hand,  27. 
Guildhall  School  of  Music,  The 

[founded  1880]. 
Guilds  of  Minstrelsy,  40. 
Guillaume  Tell  (Rossini's),  [1829], 

394. 

Guitar.  The,  134. 

Gyrowetz,  Adalbert  [1763—1819], 
399—400. 

H. 

H,  the  German  name  for  Blf,  the 
B  durum  of  the  Hexachord,  q.v. 

L  1 


Haarlem,  The  Organ  at,  147.  149. 
Hackbrett  (or  Dulcimer),  The,  143. 
Hake,  J.  [16th  century],  91. 
Hale,  Adam  de  la  [1240—1285], 
38. 

Halevy,  Jacques  Francois  Fromen- 
tal  Elias  [1799—1862],  417— 
418. 

HallelujaJi     Chorus  (Handel's), 

[1742],  235. 
Samlet  (Mons.  A.  Thomas's),  144 

(note). 

Handel,  George  Frederick  [1685 

—1759],  220-237. 
Handlo,   Robert    de    (Writer  on 

Mnaic),  [Jlor.  circa  1326]. 
Hans  I£eiling(Ksivsch.i[ieT's),[183S'], 

402. 

Harmonic  or  Guidonian  Hand,  The, 
27.  29. 

Harmonious  Blacksmith,  The  (Han- 
del's), [1720],  230. 

Harp,  The  Egyptian,  4. 

Harp,  The  modern,  134. 

Harper,  Thomas  (celebrated  Trum- 
peter), [1784—1853]. 

Harpsichord,  The  (Ital.  Cembalo. 
Fr.  Clavecin),  134.139—141.  284. 

Harpsichord,  Handel's,  141 . 

Hasler,  Hans  Leo  [1564—1612], 
60. 

Hasse,    Joseph    Adolph   [1699 — 

1783],  248.  292—293.  397. 
Hauptmann,  Moritz  [1792—1868], 

357.  405. 
Hautboy,  The  (Ital.  Oboe),  133. 
Haward,  Charles  [Jlor.  1668],  143. 
Hawkins,  Sir  John  [1719-1789],  iv. 
Haydn,    Franz    Joseph    [1732 — 

1809],  260—269.  308. 
Haydn,  Michsel  [1737—1806],  397. 
Hayes,  Dr.  Philip  [1738—1797], 

320. 

Hayes,  Dr.  William  [1707—1777], 
320. 

2 


5 1 6  htdex  and  Chronological  Table. 


Hebrew  Poetry,  The  peculiar 
characteristics  of,  19.  85—86. 

Hebrides,  The  (Mendelssohn's 
Overture  to),  [1832]. 

Heidegger,  *  Count '  iflor.  1715—], 
228.  232. 

Heiland's  letzte  Stunden,  Des 
(Spohr's),  [1835],  846. 

JSeimkehr  aus  der  Fremde  (Men- 
delssohn's), [1829]. 

Heller,  M.  Stephen  [1815—],  290. 

Hemitone,  The  Greek,  11  (jiote). 

Henri  VIII.  (Mons.  Saint  Saens's), 
144  {note). 

Henry  VTII.,  King  [1491—1547], 
79. 

Hereford  Festival,  The,  442. 
Hermann,  Landgraf  von  Thiirin- 

gen  [Jlor.  1207],  39. 
Hermes   Trismegistos,  The  Lyre 

invented  by,  3. 
Herold,  Louis  Ferdinand  Joseph 

[1791—1833],  416—417. 
Herz,  M.  Henri  [1806—],  289. 
Hexa chords,  The,  29—30  {note). 
Hidden  Fifths  and  Octaves,  210. 
Hill  and   Sons,  Messrs.  (Organ 

Builders),  147. 
Hiller  (or  Hiiller),  Johann  Adam 

[1728—1804],  304—305. 
Hiller,    Dr.   Ferdinand  [1811—], 

412. 

Hilton,  John  [05.  1657],  80. 

Himmel,  Friedrich  Heinrich  (Com- 
poser), [1765—1814]. 

Hindle,  John  [1761—1799],  432. 

Histoire  generate  de  la  Musique 
(Fetis's),  [1869—1876],  v. 

Histoire  deVharmonie  au  moyen  age 
(C,  de   Coussemaker's),  [1852], 

V. 

Historians,  Musical,  and  Histories 

of  Music,  iii. — vi. 
History  of  Music,  A  General,  &c. 

(Barney's),  [1776—1789],  iv. 


History  of  Music,  A  General,  &c. 
(Hawkin's).  [1776],  iv. 

History  of  Music,  A  General,  &c. 
(Busby's),  [1819],  iv. 

Hitchcock,  John,  and  Thomas  {_flor. 
1645],  142. 

Hobrecht  (or  Obrecht),  Jakob, 
[1440—1500  ?],53. 

Hochzeit  des  CamacJio,  Die  (Men- 
delssohn's), [1827],  351. 

Hoffmann,  Ernst  Theodor  Wil- 
helra  [1776—1822],  399. 

Hohenstaufen,  Friedrich  I.,  Fried- 
rich  II.,  and  Conradin  von,  39 
(and  note). 

Homme  arme,  IJ  (celebrated  Canto 
fermo),  63. 

Homophonic  (or  Monodic)  School, 
The,  50. 

Hook,  James  [1746—1827],  287. 
318. 

Horn,  The  (Ital.  Corno.  Fr.  Cor), 
133.  229. 

Horn,  Charles    Edward  [1786- 

1849],  437.  441. 
Horsley,  Charles  Edward  [1822— 

1876],  441. 
Horsley,  William,  Mus.  Bac.  [1774 

—1858],  432. 
Hoio   lovely    are   the  Messengers 

(Mendelssohn's),  355. 
Hucbaldus  de  S.  Amando  \_0h.  930], 

24—27.  43. 
Hugotio   di  Vercelli   (Writer  on 

Music),  lOh.  1212]. 
f?w^Me;zo!(5,ies(Meyerbeer's),[1836], 

138,  423. 
Hullah,  Dr.   John  [1812—1883], 

452  {note). 
Humfrey,   Pelham  [1617—1674], 

170.  172  et  seq. 
Hummel,  Johann  Nepomuk  [1778 

—1837],  288. 
Hungarian    Concerto   (Herr  Joa- 
chim's), 441  {note). 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


517 


Hymn  of  Praise  (Mendelssohn's 

Lohgesang),  [1840],  89. 
Hymni  fotius  anni  (Palestrina's), 

[1589],  88. 
Hymns,  Early  Christian,  87 — 88. 

479. 

Hymns,  Greek,  of  doubtful  authen- 
ticity, 7—8. 
Hymns,  Metrical,  87  et  seq. 


I. 

Iambic  Yerses  first  sung  in  Greek 

Tragedy  [b.c.  535],  477. 
Idomeneo  (Mozart's),  [1781],  273. 
Imagination,   in  modern  Music, 

495. 

Imeneo  (Handel's),  [1740],  232. 
Imitation,    Contrapuntal,  51 — 52, 

64.  480—483. 
Immanuel   (Mr.  Henry  Leslie's), 

[1853],  441. 
Immutable  System  of  Pythagoras, 

The,  9. 

Imperfect  Time   {i.e.    Duple,  or 

Quadruple),  35. 
Imjproperia  (sung  in  Holy  Week), 

480.  483. 

Indian    Queen,    The  (Purcell's), 

[1692],  184. 
Ingegneri,   Marco   Antonio  \_0h. 

1603],  107. 
In  going  to  my  naked  bedde  (Ed- 

wardes's),  [16th  century],  80. 
Inscription  (or  Motto  of  an  enigma- 
tical Canon),  481—482. 
Institutioni  armoniche  (Zarliuo't<), 

[1558. 1562.^73],  482. 
Instrumental  Music,  Early,  111 — 

112.  131—132.  148.  150. 
Instrumentation,  112. 150.  225.  245. 

299. 

Instruments,  Early  Musical,  130 
et  seq.,  148.  150."^ 


Intonation  of  the  Gregorian  Tones, 
86. 

Introit  (of  the  Mass),  The,  479. 
IjjJiegenie    en    Aulide  (Gluck's), 

[1774],  256. 
IpJiegenie  en    Tauride  (Gluck's), 

[1779],  257. 
Iphegenie  en   Tauride  (Piccini's), 

[1781],  257. 
Iron  Chest,  The  (Storace's),  [1796], 

318. 

Isaak,  Heinrich.  (Arrigo  Tedesco, 
Polyphonist),  [06.  circa  1530]. 

Isles  ofFingal,  The  (Mendelssohn's 
Overture  to),  [1832]. 

Isouard,  Nicolo  (1775—1817],  302. 

Israel  in  Egypt  (Handel's),  [1739], 
234. 

Italian  Schools,  The  Early,  56— 
74. 

J. 

Jacob,  Benjamin  (talented  Or- 
ganist), [1778—1829]. 

Jdgers  Braut,  Des  (Weber's),  [1817 
—1821],  337. 

Jahn,  Otto  (Critic  and  Historian), 
[1813—1869]. 

Jannequin,  Clement  (Polyphonisl), 
[06.  circa,  1560]. 

Jephtha  (Handel's),  [1752],  234. 

Jessonda  (Spohr's),  [1823],  345. 

Jeune,  Claud  in  le  [1540— 1600?],  91. 
93. 

Joachim,  Joseph,  412. 

Jodocus   Pratensis    (Josquin  des 

Pres),  [1450?— 1521],  54—55. 
John  of  Fornsete  [06.  post  1226], 

46.  74. 

Joliuson,  Robert  [15th.  century"^, 
79. 

Jomelli,  Nicolo  [1714—1774],  201. 
Jongleurs,  39.  131. 
Jon?on,  Ben,  177. 


5 1 8  Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Joseph  (Handel's),  [1744],  234. 
Joseph  (Mehul's),  [1807],  298.  300. 
Joshua  (Handel's),  [1748],  234. 
Josquin  des  Pres  [Lat.  Jodocus 

Pratensis),  [1450  ?— 1521],  54— 

55. 

Journees,  Les   deux  (Cherubini's), 

[1800],  380—381. 
Jubilate,  The  Utrecht  TeDeum  and 

(Handel's),  [1713],  227. 
Jubilate,  Te  Deum  and  (Piircell's), 

[1694],  182—183. 
Judas     MaccabcBus  (Handel's), 

[1747],  234. 
Judith  (Arne's),  [1764],  314. 
Juive,  La  (Halevy's),  [1835],  417. 
Jungste    Gericht,    Das  (Spohr's), 

[1812],  343. 
Just  Intonation,  Proportions  of  the 

Scale  in,  11  {note). 
Jupiter  in  Argos  (Handel's),  [1739], 

232. 

Jupiter  Symphony  (Mozart's),  268. 
^Just  Intonation'    (General  Per- 
ronet  Thompson's),  10  {note). 

K. 

Kalkbrenner,  Priedrich  [1788 — 

1849],  289. 
Kapsberger,  Johannes  Hieronymus 

\Jior.  1600—1633],  128. 
Keiser,    Eeinhard  [1673—1739], 

306. 

Kelly,  Michj3el  [1764—1826],  433. 
Kemble,  Miss  Adelaide  (Mrs.  Sar- 

toris,  celebrated.  Singer)  [1814 — 

1879]. 

Kent,  James  [1700—1776],  320. 
Kiese wetter,  Raphael  Georg  [1773 

—1850],  V. 
Kilmansegge,    Baron    von  \_Jlor. 

1715],  229. 
King  Arthur  (Piircell's),  [1691], 

184. 


King  of  the  Minstrels,  The  [1381], 
40. 

Kirbye,  George  IJlor.  1592],  80. 
Kircher,  P.  [1602—1680],  20. 
Kirkman,  Messrs.  Joseph,  and  Sons, 
140.  286. 

Koechel,  Dr.  Lndwig  Ritter  von 
(Critic  and  Historian),  [1800 — 
1877]. 

Kreutzfahrer,  D/e  (Spohr's),  [1845], 
346. 

KritiscJie   JEinleitung  in  die  Ge- 

schichte    der    Tonkunst  (Mar- 

purg's),  [1751],  iii. 
Krumme   Teufelt  Der  (Haydn's), 

[1752],  261. 
Kyrie  eleison  (of  the  Mass)  The, 

480. 


L. 

Lablacue,  Luigi  [1794—1858],  387. 

390.  391. 
Larabillote,  Pere,  20. 
Lamentationes  (sung  in  Holy  Week), 

The,  480.  483. 
Lampe,  John   Frederick   [1703 — 

1751],  433. 
Landi,  Stefano  {_0b.  1640],  124. 
Large,  First  use  of  the,  34. 
Lasciatemi  morire  (Monteverde's), 

[1607],  108—109. 
Lasso,  Orlando  di  (Roland  de  Lat- 

tre),  [1520—1594],  55. 
Last  Judgment,  The  (Spohr's  Die 

Letzten  Dinge),  [1826],  346. 
_L«M(/a/SioM(Mendelssohn's),[1846]. 
Laudi   spirituali  [16th  century], 

124. 

Laudisti,  The  [1316—1770],  124. 
Lavenu,  Louis  Henry  [1818 — 1859], 
439. 

Lawes,  Heury  [1595—1662],  165. 
Liwes,  William  [0Z».  1645],  165. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


519 


Leading  Theme  {Germ.Leit-^fotlf), 
The  use  of  the,  467—468.  497— 
498. 

Leffler,  Adam  [1808—1857],  184. 
Legende  von  der  Seiligen  JEliza- 

beth,  Die  (The  Abbe  Liszt's),  441 

{note). 

Legrenzi,    D.   Giovanni    [1625 — 

1690],  116. 
Leipzig,    The    Cantors    of  the 

Thomas- Schule  at,  241.  305.  357. 
Leipzig,  The  Gewandhaus  Concerts 

at,  305.  353. 
Leipzig,  The  School  of,  303—305. 
Leit-Motif  (or  Leading  Theme), 

The  nse  of,  467—468.  497—498. 
Lenaea,  Theatre  of  the,  at  Athens, 

5—6.  478—479. 
Lenore  (Raff's  Fifth  Symphony)^ 

410—411. 
Leo,  Leonardo  [1694—1746],  198. 
Lesueur,  Jean   Frangois   [1763 — 

1837],  298—299. 
Letzten  Binge,  Die  (Spohr's  Last 

Judgment),  [1826],  346. 
Lexikon  der  Tonkilnstler  (Gerber's), 

[1790—1792],  V. 
Lexikon,  MusikaliscJies  Conversa- 
tions (Mendel's),   [1870—  ], 

V. 

Libertine,  The  (Purcell's),  [1676], 
181. 

Libraries,  Musical,  48  {note),  76  77. 

80. 153. 156.  157.  163.  195. 
Liedy  The  German  National,  41. 

305. 

Light  of  the  World,  The  (Sir  A. 
Sullivan's),  452  {note). 

Llnd,  Mademoiselle  Jenny  (Ma- 
dame Lind  Goldsclimidt),  360 — 
362. 

Lindley,    Robert  (Violoncellist), 

[1776—1855]. 
Lindpaintner,  Peter   Joseph  von 

[1791—1856],  400—4^)1. 


Lines  of  the  Stave,  Invention  of 

the,  31—33. 
Linley,  Thomas,  Sen.  (Composer), 

[1725—1795]. 
Linley,  Thomas,  Jun.  (Composer), 

1756—1778]. 
Liszt,  The  Abbe  Franz  [1811—], 

289.  291.  451. 
Litanies,  The  Discordant,  44. 
Litany  (Tallis's),  [16th  century],  80. 
Lobgesang  (Mendelssohn's  Hymn 

of  Praise),  [1810],  356. 
Locl^e,  Matthew  [06.  1677],  166. 
Loder,   Edward    James    [1813 — 

1865],  439. 
Lodoisha  (Cherubini's),  [1791],  379. 
Logroscino,  Nicolo  [1700—1763], 

200. 

Lohengrin  (Wagner's),  [1850],  456. 
London  School  of  Yiolin  Makers, 

137—138. 
Long,  First  use  of  the,  34. 
Long,  the  Double,  34. 
Loreley   (Mendelssohn's),  [1847], 

367. 

Loreto,  Vittorio  [17th  century], 
128.  129. 

Loritus,  Henricus  (called  Glarea- 
nus),  {_0b.  1563],  55.  482. 

Lortzing,  Gustav  Albert  [1803 — 
1852],  403. 

Lotario  (Handel's),  [1729],  232. 

Lotti,  Antonio  [1667—1740],  192— 
193 

Loure,  The,  487. 

Low,  Edward  (or  Edmund),  [06. 

1682],  165. 
Lowe,   Thomas    (popular  Tenor 

Singer),  [/or.  1740—1784]. 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor  (Donizetti's), 

[1835],  390. 
Lucrezia     Borgia  (Donizetti's), 

[1834],  399. 
Lulli,  Jean  Baptiste  [1633—1687], 
I      117. 159—161. 


520  Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Lute,  The,  132.  134. 

Luther,  Martin  [1483—1546],  89. 

Lyre,  The,  3.  4.  134. 


M. 

Macbeth  (Locke's  Music  to),  166 
(and  note). 

Madrigal,  The,  71—72.  80.  82.  482. 

Madrigal  Society,  The  [founded 
in  1741],  80.  320. 

Madrigal-writers,  The  great  [16th 
century],  55.  60.  80. 

Maelzel,  Johann  Nepomuk  (In- 
ventor of  the  Metronome),  [1772 
—1838]. 

Maid  of  Orleans,  The  (Sir  W.  S. 
Bennett's  Sonata),  445. 

Major  and  Minor  Scales,  Tlie  mo- 
dern, 11  {note),  12  {note). 

Malibran,  Madame  Maria  Felicita 
[1808—1836],  387. 

Mandolin,  The,  134. 

Manfred  (Schumann's),  [1848], 
369. 

Manichord  (or   Clavichord),  The, 

143  et  seq. 
Mara,    Gertrude    Elizabeth  {nee 

Schmeling),  [1749—1833],  387. 
Marbeck  (or  Merbecke),  John  ^Oh. 

[1585],  79. 
Marcello,  Benedetto  [1686—1739], 

194. 

Marchetto  di  Padova  (Writer  on 

Music),  \^circa  1274]. 
Marenzio,  Luca  [1550-1599],  60. 
Maria  Theresa   Symphony,  The 

(Haydn's),  [1773],  263. 
Marie    Antoinette,     Queen  \_0h. 

1793],  254.  256.  271. 
Maries,  Les  trois  [14th  century], 

123. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  Conte  di  Candia 
[1812—1885],  387. 


Marionettes,  Haydn's  Operas  com- 
posed for,  262. 

Marot,  Clement  [1496—1544],  90. 

Marpurg,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  [1718 
—1795],  iii. 

Marschner,  Heinrich  [1796—1861], 
401—402. 

Martianus  Capella  \_flor.  a.d.  470], 
8. 

Martini,  P.  Giambattista  [1706— 
1784],  iv.  20. 

Martyrs  of  Antioch  (Sir  A.  Sulli- 
van's), 451  (note). 

Marylebone  Gardens  [1659—1776], 
314. 

Masque,  The  early  English,  179. 
Mass,  The  Music  of  the,  62  et  seq., 

71  {note),  79—80.  82. 
Massenet,  M.  Jules  Emile  Frederic, 

426. 

Matrimonio  segreto,Il  (Cimarosa's), 
[1792],  374. 

Mattheson,  Johann  [1681 — 1764], 
iii.  223.  306. 

May  Queen,  The  (Sir  W.  S.  Ben- 
nett's), [1858],  445. 

Mazzocchi,  Domenico  \_0h.  1646], 
129. 

Medee  (Cherubini's),  [1797],  380. 

Mediation  of  the  Gregorian  Tones, 
The,  86.  176. 

Medecin  malgre  tut,  Le  (M.  Gou- 
nod's), [1858],  430. 

Mehul,  Etienne  Henri  [1763— 
1817],  299—300. 

Meibomius,  Marcus  [Ob.  1711],  8. 

Meistersini/er  von  Niirnberg,  Die 
(Wagner's),  [1868],  458—460. 

Meistersingers,  The,  39  et  seq. 

Melopeo,      (Cerone's),  [1613], 482. 

Melos  {fxeXos)  of  Greek  Tragedy, 
7—8.  477. 

Meluslne,  Die  schdne  (Mendels- 
sohn's Overture  to),  [1834], 
353. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Mendel,    Hermann  [1834—1876], 

V. 

Mexdelssoun  -  Bartholdy,  Felix 

[1809—1847],  288.  348. 
Mendelssohn,  Moses  [1729—1786], 

348. 

Menestriers,  he  'Roy  des  [1295], 
40. 

Mercadante,  Saverio  [1797 — 1870"^, 
388. 

Merry    Wives   of  Windsor^  The 

(Mcolai's),  [1849],  407. 
Mersenne,  Le  Pere  Marin  [1588 — 

1645],  20. 
Merula,  Tarquinio  (Composer),  [0&. 

circa  1640]. 
Mernlo,  Claudio  (Composer),  [1532 

—1609  ?]. 
Messiah  (Handel's),  [1742],  234 — 

235. 

Metastasio,   Pietro   Antonio  Do- 

menico    Bonaventura  [1698 — 

1782],  248. 
Metrical  Hymns,  87 — 88. 
Metrical  Psalmody,  87—94. 
Metronome,   The    (Patented,  by 

Maelzel,  in  1816). 
Meyerbeer,  Giacomo  [1791 — 1863], 

422—425. 
Micrologus     (Guido  d'Arezzo's), 

Icirca  1025],  27—30. 
Micrologus,   MusIccb    actives  (by 

Ornithoparchns),  [1517],  482. 
Midsummer    Nighfs    Dream,  A 

(Mendelssohn's),    [1826.  1843], 

351—352. 
Milder-Hanptmann,  Pauline  Anna 

(celebrated  Singer),  [1785—1838]. 
Milton,   John   (the   Elder),  [06. 

1646],  92. 
Milton,   John   [1608—1674],  165. 

179. 

Minim,  First  use  of  the,  34. 
Minnesingers,  The,  38  et  seq.,  139. 
Minstrels,  The,  37  seq^. 


Minuet,  The  (Ital.  Menuetlo),  267. 

486—487. 
Miracle  Plays,  The  Early,  118  etseq. 
Mireille   (M.   Gounod's),  [1864], 

430. 

M>serere  (Allegri's),  272.  483. 
Missa  hrevis,  63. 

Missa  canonica  (Fux's),  [1718], 
206. 

i  Missa,  Lliomme  arme,  63. 
Missa  jPajjfB  Marcelli  (Palestri- 

na's),  [1565],  59.  67—69. 
Missa  sine  nomine,  63. 
Missa  soltmnis  (Beethoven't*),  [ 
],  280. 

Missa  super  voces  musicales,  63. 
Missa,  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La, 
63. 

Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation,  35. 
Modes,  The  Authentic,  17  (note), 

71  {note). 
Modes,  The  Ecclesiastical,  16 — 17 

(notes),  71  {note),  84. 
Modes,  The  Greek,  12  {note). 
Modes,  The  Plagal,  17  {note),  71 

{note). 

Modes,  The  Transposed,  71  {note). 
Modulation  to  the   Key   of  the 

Dominant,  267. 
Monochord,  The,  9.  27.  144. 
Monodia,  102. 

Monodic  Schools,  The,  50.  210 — 
211. 

Monsigny,  Pierre  Alexandre  [1729 

—1817],  302. 
Monte,  Philippus  de  [1521—1603], 

55. 

Mouteverde,  Claudio  [1568—1643], 
98.  1*06-115. 

Montpelier  MS.,  The  [13th  cen- 
tury], 76. 

Morales,  Cristofano  (Polyphonist), 
[for.  1539—1569]. 

Morahties.  A  name  for  the  old 
Mii-acle  Plays,  q.v. 


522 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Morlacclii,  Francesco  [1784—1841], 

385-397. 
Morlej,  Thomas  [1563—1604],  80. 

92. 

Mornington,  Garrett  Colley  Welles- 
ley,  First  Earl  of  [1735-1781], 
432. 

Mors  et  Vita  (M.Gounod's),  [1885], 
429. 

Moscheles,    Ignaz  [1794—1870], 

288.  351. 
Motet,  The,  45.  62.  71.  482. 
Motto  (or  Inscription  of  an  enig- 
matical Canon),  481.  482. 
Mountier  (popular  Tenor  Singer), 

yior.  1732-3]. 
Mouton,   Giovanni   [1475 — 1522], 

483  {note). 
Mozart,  Leopold  [1719—1787],  270. 
Mozart,  Wolfgang  Amadeus  [1756 

—1791],  268.  270-278, 
Muette  de  Portici,  La  (Auber's), 

[1828],  416. 
Muris,  Joannes  de  (Writer  on  Mu- 
sic), [14th  century]. 
Musette,  The,  133.  489. 
Music  of  the  Olden  Time  (Mr.  W. 

Chappell's),  48  (note). 
Musica  Jicta  (or  Cantus  fictus),  482. 
3£usica  getuseht   und  ausgezogcn 

(Yirdung's),  [1511],  132. 
Musica     instrumentalis  deudsch 

(Agricola's),  [1529],  133. 
3fusica    mensurahilis  (Measured 

Music),  34. 
3Iusica    jparlante    [Invented  in 

1600],  104. 
Musica  transalpina  (N.  Yonge's), 

[1588.  1597],  83. 
Musical  Drama,  The  True,  105  et 

seq.,  307.  463  et  seq. 
Musikalisches  Conversatioiis-Lexi- 

Icon  [1870—       ],  V. 
MusiJcalisches  LexiJcon  (Walther'.^), 

[1732],  iii. 


Musikalisches  Opftr  (J.S.Bach's), 

[1747],  242. 
Musurgla  (F.  Kircher's),  [1650]. 
Musurgia  seu praxis  musicce  (Nach- 

tigal's),  [1536],  133. 
Mutations  of  the  Hexachord,  29. 
Muzio   Scevola  (By  Ariosti,  Buo- 

noncini,   and  Handel),  [1721], 

231. 

Mysteries,  The  Media3val,  118  et 
seq. 


Naiades,  The  (Sir  W.  S.  Bennett's 

Overture),  [1836],  443. 
Nanini, Bernadino  \_0b.  circa  1620], 

60. 

Nanini,  Giovanni  Maria  [1540 — 

1607],  60. 
Nares,   Dr.  James    [1715 — 1783], 

187.  320. 
National  Song,  41. 
Natur  der  Harmonic  und  Metrih, 

Die  (Hauptmann's),  [1853],  405. 
Naumann,  Johann  Gottlieb  [1741 

—1801],  398. 
Neefe,  Christian  [1748—1798],  279. 
Neffen,  Die  heiden  (Mendelssohn's), 

[1824],  350. 
Keri,  S.  Philip  [1515—1595],  59. 

124. 

Neue  Zeitschrift filr  Musik  (Schu- 
mann's), [1834],  368. 

Neumse,  24-25.  30—31. 

Nichomachus  \_jior.  a.d.  60],  8. 

Nicolai,  Otto  [1810—1849],  407. 

Nicolini,  The  Cavaliere  (Nicoliai 
Grimaldi),  [1673—1726  .P],  225. 
228.  386. 

Niedermeyer,  Louis  [1802—1861], 
419. 

Nilsson,  Mademoiselle  Christine 
[1843-  ]. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Ninth   Symphony  (Beethoven's), 

[1824],  280.  491. 
Non  nobis  Domine  (Byrd's),  [16th 

century],  81. 
Nonne  sanglante,  La  (M.  Gounod's), 

[1854],  430. 
Norma  (Bellini's),  [1832].  390. 
Norwich  Festival,  The,  442. 
Notation,  Early  forms  of,  24 — 36. 
Notkerns,  Abbot  of  S.  Gall  [Writer 

on  Music],  27. 
Nottebohm,  Martin  Gustav  (Critic 

and  Historian),  [1817 —  ]. 
Novello,  Miss  Clara  (The  Countess 

Gigliucci),  388. 
Novello,  Vincent  [1781—1861]. 
Nozze  di   Figaro,  Le  (Mozart's^), 

[1786],  275. 
Nuove    musiche,    Le  (Caccini's), 

[1602],  102. 


0. 

Oberammehgau,  The  Passion  Play 
at,  123. 

Obrecht  (or  Hobrecht),  Jakob, 
[144^—1500?],  53. 

Occasional  Oratorio,  The  (Han- 
del's), [1746],  234. 

Octaves  and  Fifths,  Hidden,  and 
Consecutive,  210. 

Ode  for  Saint  Ccecilia'' s  Day  (Han- 
del's), [1739],  235. 

Odington,Walter( Writer  on  Music), 
\circa  1240]. 

Odo,  S.  Abbot  of  Cluny  [879—942], 
27. 

Odysseus  (Herr  Max  Bruch's),  451 
{note). 

(Edipus  Coloneus  (Mendelssohn's), 

[1845],  364. 
Ofterdingen,  Heinrich  von  (called 

der  Ehrenhafte),  [i2th  and  13th 

centuries],  39. 


Okenheim  (or  Ockegem),  Joannes 

[1443  ?— 1512],  53. 
Old  Hundredth  Psalm  Tune,  93— 

94. 

'  Old  Version '  of  the  Psalms 
(Sternhold  and  Hopkins),  [1562], 
91. 

Ole  Bull,  Bornemann  (celebrated 

Violinist),  [1810—  ]. 
Onslow,  George  (Eng.  Composer), 

[1784—1853]. 
Opera,  The   first  Italian  [1600], 

105. 

0^)era  Comique,  The,  296—298. 
Opera,  Deterioration  of  the  Italian, 

248—251. 
Opera,  English,  179—181.  313— 

314.  315. 
Opera,  Gravid,  The,  160.  295—297. 
Opera,  Laws  of  the  Italian,  in  the 

time  of  Metastasio,  248 — 251. 
'  Opera  of  the  Nobility,  The '  [1729 

—1737],  232—233. 
Opera  in  Dresden,  The,  248. 
Opera  in  France,  The,  117. 
Opera,  German,  275.  305—308. 
Opera  of  Operas  (Dr.  Arne's  Tom 

TJiumh),  [1733],  312. 
Opera-House  in  the  Haymarket, 

The,  225  {note),  231.  252. 
Opera-Houses  in  Eome,  117. 
Opera-Houses  in  Venice,  114 — 117. 
Oratorio,   The    first    [1600],  124 

et  seq. 

Oratorio,  Progressive  develoj)ment 

of  the,  124  et  seq. 
Oratorio,  Origin  of  the  name,  124. 
Oratorios  (Handel's),  224.  230.  233 

—235. 

Oratory,  S.  Philip  Neri's,  124. 
OraziJ  e  Curiazij,  G^Z/ (Cimarosa's), 
375. 

Orchestra  (o/jx'^crrpa)  of  the  Greek 

Theatre,  478. 
Orchestra,  The  Classical,  493. 


524  Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Orchestra,  The  modern,  493. 
Orchestras,  Early,  112.  127.  132. 

148.  150. 
Orchestral  Effects,  225.  245.  299. 
Orchestral     Fugue,    The,  218— 

219. 

Orders  of  Counterpoint,  The  Five, 

52  {note). 
0)feo  (Gluck's),  [1762],  253.  256. 
O)feo  (Monte verde's),  [1608],  108 

—112. 

Organ-builders,  English  and  Con- 
tinental, 146—147. 

Organ  Point  (or  Pedal),  in  the 
Tonal  Fugue,  485—486. 

Organ  Sonatas  (Mendelssohn's), 
[1845],  358  {note). 

Organ,  The,  134;,  14:5  et  seq. 

Organ,  The  Haarlem,  146.  149. 

Organ  Voluntaries,  89. 

Organisers,  [13th  century],  26. 

Organum,  26.  43.  45. 

Orlando  (Handel's),  [1733],  232. 

Ornithoparchus,  Andreas  (And. 
Yogelgesang),  Iflor.  1517],  482. 

Orpheus  Britannicus  (Purcell's), 
[1698.  1702],  186. 

Ortiz,  Didaco  (Poh'phonist),  [05. 
1565  .P]. 

Osanna  (of  the  Mass),  The,  480. 
Osborne,  George  Alexander  (Eng. 

Composer),  [1806—  ]. 
Ottone  (Handel's),  [1723],  231. 
Overtures,  Early,  111.  137.  160. 
Overtures,  Modern,  492. 


P. 

Pacini,    Giovanni  [1796-1867], 
388. 

Padova,  Marchetto  di  (Writer  on 

Music),  {Jlor.  1274]. 
Paer,    Ferdinando  [1771-1839], 

396.  418—419. 


Paganini,   Nicolo    (famous  Yio- 

linist),  [1784—1840]. 
Paisiello,  Giovanni  [1741—1815], 

201. 

Palesteixa,    Giovanni  Pieeluigi 

[1524—1594],  57—59. 
Paniinger,  Leonhard  (Polyphonist), 

lOb.  1568]. 
Pawn's  Pipes  (The  Syrinx,  or  Mouth- 

Organ),  145. 
Papce  Marcelli,  Missa  [1565],  59. 

67—69. 

Paradies,  Pietro  Domenico  (Com- 
poser), [1710—1792]. 

Paradise  and  the  Peri  (Sir  W.  S. 
Bennett's  Overture  to),  [1862], 
445. 

Paradise  and  the  Peri  (Schu- 
mann's), [1848],  369. 

Parisina  (Sir  W.  S.  Bennett's 
Overture  to),  [1834],  443. 

'Parnasso  in  Fcsta  (Handel's), 
[1734],  232. 

Parsifal  (Wagner's),  [1882],  461. 

Parsons,  Robert  [06.  1570],  79. 

Partenope  (Handel's),  [1730],  232. 

Partita  (or  Suite),  490. 

Part- writing,  The  modern  system 
of,  208—212.  244—245. 

Pasquini,  Bernardo  (Organist), 
[1637—1710]. 

Passacaglia,  The  (Fr.  P assecaille) , 
488. 

Passio  Jesu  Christi  (sung  in  Holy 

Week),  The,  480. 
Passion  Music  (J.  S.  Bach's),  241. 
Passion      Oratorios  (Handel's), 

[1704.  1716],  223.  229. 
Passion  Plays,  122—123. 
Pasta,    Madame  ■  Gluditta  {nee 

JS^egri),  [1798—1865],  387. 
Pastor  jido,  II  (Handel's),  [1712], 

226. 

Paton,  Miss  Mary  Anne  (Mrs. 
Wood),  [1802-1854],  342. 


Index  and  Chrcnological  Table, 


525 


Paul,  S.  (Mendelssohn's),  [1836], 
353. 

Pavane,    The    (Ttal.  Padovana. 

Eng.  Pavin),  487. 
Paxton,  Stephen  ^Oh  1787],  432. 
Pearsall,  Robert  Lucas  de  [17i>5 — 

1856],  452  {note). 
Pedal  (or   Organ  Point)    in  tlie 

Tonal  Fugue,  485.  486. 
Pepusch,   Dr.   John  Christopher 

[1667—1752],  314—315. 
Pepys's  Diary,  Extracts  from,  168 

—174. 

Peregrinus,  Tonus,  The,  19,  85. 
Perfect  Notes,  35. 
Perfect  {i.e.  Triple)  Time,  35. 
Pergolesi,  Giovanni  Battista  [1690 

—1732],  199—200. 
Peri,  Jacopo  [flor.  1600],  103.  105 

—106. 

Persiani,  Madame  Fanny  {nee 
Tacchinardi),  [1812—1867],  387. 

Per  spice  Christicola  [1226],  49. 

Petrucci,  Ottaviano  de  (famous 
Music  Printer),  [Jlor.  circa  1500], 
54. 

Pevernage,  Andrew  (Polyphonist), 

[1543—1591]. 
Phelyppes,  Sir  John  [16th  century], 

79. 

Phillips,    Henry    (Bass  Singer), 

[1801—1876]. 
Phoenician  origin  of  Music,  The 

supposed,  3. 
Piacenza  MS.,  The  [14th  century], 

78. 

Piano-forte,  The,  144  {note). 
Piccinl,  Nic3ola  [1723—1800],  257 

—258.  293. 
Pierson,    Henry    Hugo     [1815 — 

1873],  439.  441.  452  {yiote). 
Pietro  von  Ahano  (Spohr's),  [1827], 

346. 

Pilgerspruch  (Mendelssohn's),  355. 
Pirata,  11  (Bellini's),  [1827],  389. 


Pizzicato  first  used  in  the  Orches- 
tra [1624],  112. 

Plagal  Modes,  The,  16  {note),  17 
{note). 

Plain  Chaunt  {Cantus  plamis),  17. 

479—480. 
Plaine  and  easie  Introduction  to 

Practicall  Jlusicke  (Morley'y), 

[1597],  482. 
Platensis,  Petrus  (Pierre  de  la  Hue), 

IJlor.  1500],  55. 
Playford,  Henry   (Son  of  John), 

[1657— 1710. P]. 
Playford,  John  [1613-1694],  101 

{note). 

Pleyel,  Ignaz  Joseph  [1757—1831], 
398. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  The  laws  of,  85 — 
86. 

PoU^  (Dr.  Pepusch's),  [1729],  315. 
Polycarp,    Saint    (Sir  Frederick 

Ouseley's),  [1854],  441. 
Potyeucte  (M.  Gounod's),  [1878], 

430. 

Polyodic  Schools,  The,  50.  211— 
212. 

Polyphonic  Schools,  The,  50 — 52. 

62—74.  75-83. 
PonchielH,  Sigr.,  453  {note). 
Pontifical  Choir,  The,  54.  56.  57— 

58.  67.  68. 
Poro  (Handel's),  [1731],  232. 
Porpora,  Nicolo  [1686—1766],  202. 

248. 

Positif  {oY  medijEval  fixed  Organ] 
134.  145. 

Postillo7i    de     Longjumeau,  Le, 

(Adam's),  [1835],  417. 
Potter,    Philip   Cipriani  Hambly 

(Pianist),  [1792—1871]. 
Power,  Lionel  [15th  century],  78. 
Poiver  of  Sound,    The  (Spohr's), 

[1832],  346. 
Practica     Musicce  (Gafurius's), 

[1496],  .34. 


526 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Prcpfatio  (of  the  Mass),  The, 
480. 

Praenestinus,  loannes  Petraloysins 
{v.  Palestriiia),  [1524—1591],  57 
—59. 

Pratorius   Michrel  [1571—1621], 

133—134.  397. 
Pratica    di   Mnsica  (Zacconi's), 

[1592.  1622],  482. 
Prodoscimus      de  Beldemandis 

(Writer  on  Music),  Ifior.  1403]. 
Prolation  (the  proportion  between 

the  Minim  and  the  Semibreve), 

35. 

Prometheus     Unbound    (Dr.  H. 

Parry's),  452  {note). 
Prophete,  Le  (Meyerbeer's),  [1849], 

424. 

Proscenium   (TrpoaKTiVLov)     of  the 

Greek  Theatre,  478. 
Prose  (or  Sequence),  The  {Prosa, 

vel  Sequentia),  87—88.  479. 
Prose  de  Vane,  The  [12th  century], 

120-122. 
Proslambanomenos,     The  Greek 

{npoaXafji^avofxevos),  10  (note). 
Prosody,   The   laws  of  Classical, 

85. 

Prudentius,  87. 

Psalmes,  The  ivhole  JBooke  of 
(Kavenscroft's),  [1621],  92.  94. 

Psalm-Tones,  The  Gregorian,  18.84 
87.  479. 

Psalm-Tune,  The  Old  Hundredth, 
93—94. 

Psalms,  The  Old  Version  of  the 
(Sternhold  and  Hopkins),  [1562], 
91. 

Psalms  (Marcello's),  [1724—1727], 
194. 

Psalmody,  Metrical,  87  et  seq. 
Psalmody,  properly  so-called,  84 — 
86. 

Psalter  Noted,  The  (by  the  Kev. 
T.  Helmore),  86  {note). 


Psalters,  English  and  Continental, 
89—94. 

Psalters,  Gregorian,  86  {note). 
Psaltery,  The,  139. 
Ptolomy,  Claudius  \_fior.  a.d.  130], 
8. 

Purcell,  Henry,  the  Elder,  165.  178. 
Purcell,  Henry  [1658—1695],  178— 
186. 

Purcell,  Thomas,  165.  175.  178. 
Puritani,  i"  (Bellini's),  [1835],  390. 
Puritans,  Destruction  of  Libraries 

by  the,  77.  163. 
Purkis,   John   Charles  (talented 

Organist),  [1781—1850  ?]. 
Pythagoras  \_Jlor.  B.C.  585],  8 — 10 

(and  note). 

Q- 

Quadruplum,   An   early  English 

[13th  century],  46. 
Quanz,  Joachim  (celebrated  Flute 

Player),  [1697—1773],  397. 
Quartett,  The  Classical,  492. 
Quartett,   Double,    in    E  Minor 

(Spohrs),  348  {note). 
Quaver   {Croma  or  Fusa),  First 

use  of  the,  34. 
Quen  of  euene  (Old  English  Hymn), 

[13th  century],  76. 
Querimonia  di  S.  Maria  Madde- 

lena,  129. 
Querimonia    {Les   trois  Maries), 

123. 

Quinquagene  of  Metrical  Psalms, 
The  first  (Archbishop  Parker's), 
[1567],  91—92. 

Quintilianus,  Aristides  [  Hor.  a.d. 
110],  8. 

R. 

Radamisto  (Handel's),  [1720],  231. 
Eaff,  Joseph  Joachim  [1822—18821, 
409—411. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table, 


527 


EameaiT,   Jean   Philippe  [1683 — 

176 203—204. 
Ranelagh  Gardens  [1690—1805], 

271. 

Rappresentaz'wne  dcIV  anhna,  e  del 
corpo,  La  [1600],  101.  125—128 
132. 

Eavenscroft,     Tliomas  [15-13— 

1614 .?],  92. 
Reading  MS.,  The  [1226],  45—49. 
Rebec,  The,  130. 

Rebellion,  Destruction  of  Books 
and  Organs  during  the,  77. 

Recitative,  Invention  of  [1600], 
104.  105-106. 

jReoitativo  secco  (Unaccompanied 
Recitative),  483. 

Recitativo  stromentato  (Accom- 
panied Recitative),  157 — 158. 

Reciting-ISrote  of  the  Gregorian 
Tones,  86. 

Redemption,  The  (M.  Gounod's), 
[1882],  430. 

Redford,  John  Itior.  1491— 1547],  79. 

Reeve,  William  [1757—1815],  sis. 

Reeves,  Mr.  John  Sims  (celebrated 
Tenor),  [1822—  ]. 

Reform  of  the  Opera  (Gluck's),  247 
—259. 

Reform  of  the  Opera(\Vagner's),464. 
Reformation,   Destruction  of  Mo- 
nastic Libraries  during  the,  77. 
Regal  (or  mediaeval portableOrgan), 

132.  134.  14.5. 
Regius,  Tonus,  The,  85. 
Reine  de  Saha,  La  (M.  Gounod's), 

[1862],  430. 
Rejoice  in  the  Lord  (Redford's), 

[16th  century],  79. 
Remy,  S.,  of  Auxerrc  (Writer  on 

Music),  27. 
Renaissance^  The  (its  effect  upon 

Music),  103. 
Repercussion  (of  the  Tonal  Fugue), 

485. 


I  Reprise  (in  the  Sonata-Form), 
I  268. 

j  Requiem  (Mozart's),  [1721],  277— 
278. 

:  Requiem  (Cherubini's),  382.  383. 
i  Restoration,  The  English  School  of 
the,  163—187. 
Resurrezione^  La  (Handel's),  [1708], 
■  224. 

Reutter,  Georg  von  [1 708 — 1 7  72],  261 . 
I  Rheingold,  Das  (Wagner's),  [1869], 
'     457. 460. 
'  Ribible,  The,  131. 
I  Riccardo  Primo  (Handel's),  [1727], 
\  231. 

:  Ricci,  Frederico  [1809—1877],  389. 
,  Ricci,  Luigi  [1805—1859],  389. 
i  Rienzi  (Wagner's),  [1842],  456. 
Righini,   Vincenzo  [1756—1812], 

385.  399. 
Rinaldo  (Handel's),  [1711],  225. 
Ring  des  Nibelungen,  Ler  (Wag- 
ner's), [1876],  457.  460. 
Rink,  Johann  Christian  Heinrich 

(Organist),  [1770—1846]. 
Rinuccini,  Ottavio  [1550—1610 .?], 
I     103  107.  117. 

Riot- Scene,  in  Bie  3feistersinger 
\      (Wagner's),  498. 
!  Ritornelli  tirst  played  in  the  Chapel 
I      Royal  [1662],  167—169. 
I  Ritter  Poesie,  Mediteval,  39—40. 

Robert    de    Handlo    (Writer  on 
I      Music),  [circa  1326]. 
Robe7't   le  Liable  (Meyerbeer's), 

[1831],  423. 
Robinson,  Mrs.  Anastasia  (after- 
wards Countess  of  Peterborough), 
[Ob.  1750],  386. 
Rochlitz,  Friedrich  Johann  [1769 — 

1842],  434. 
Rodelinda  (Handel's),  [1725],  231. 
Rodrigo  (Handel's),  [1707],  224. 
Romantic  School,  The,  282.  49-5— 
496. 


528 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Romeo  et  Juliette  (M.  Gounod's), 

[1867],  430. 
Ronconi,     Giorgio    [1810 —  ], 

344. 

Rondo,  Form  of  tlie  Classical,  491. 
Rooke,  William  Micheel  [1974— 

1847],  436-437. 
Rore,    Cipriano  di    [1516 — 1565], 

60.  I 
Rosa,  Salvator  (Painter,  and  Com- 

pos.T),  [1615—1673]. 
Bosamunde  (Schubert's),  [1824], 

331. 

Rose  of  Sharon,  The  (Mr.  Macken- 
zie's), [1884],  452  {note). 

Rossi,  Francesco  de'  [/?or.  1680], 
156. 

Rossi,  Luigi  [jior.  1620],  156. 

Rossi,  Michel  Angelo  [17th  cen- 
tury], 129. 

Rossini,  Giacomo  Antonio  [1792 — 
1868],  391—394. 

Rota,  The  Reading  [1226],  47—49. 

Rote,  The,  131. 

Round-headed  ZSTptes,  First  use  of 

[17th  century],  34. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques  [1712 — 

1778],  301—302. 
i?oy  des   Menestriers,  The  First 

[1295],  40. 
Rrjy  des  Violons,  40. 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  [1720 — 

1728],  230—232. 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  [founded 

1822],  472  (note). 
Royal  College  of  Music  [founded 

1883],  472  {note). 
Rubini,  Giovanni  Battista  [1795  — 

1854],  387.  389.  390. 
Ruckers,    Andreas     (the  Elder), 

[1579—1651],  140. 
Ruckers,  Andreas   (the  Younger), 

[1607—1667.?^],  140. 
Ruckers,   Francis,   and  Anthony 

[1579—1651],  140. 


Ruckers,  Hans  (the  Elder),  [1555 — 

1632  .?],  140. 
Rackers,Hans  (the  Younger),  [1578 

—1642  ?],  140. 
Rilhezalil  (Weber's),  [1805].  335. 
Rue,   Pierre  de  la  (Petrus  Pla- 

tensis),  [/?or.  1477—1510],  55. 
Ruffo,  Yincenzo(Polyphonist),  \0h. 

circa  1574]. 
Rule  Britannia  (Dr.  Arne's),[1740], 

312—313. 
Russell,  William  [1777—1813],  440. 
Ruth   (Mr.   Otto  Goldschmidt's), 

[1867],  441. 


Sacchini,  Antonio  Maria  Gasparo 

[1734—1786],  201.418. 
Sachs,  Hans  (^Nlei-stersinger),  40. 
Sacl'pfeiffe  (the  Bag-pipes),  134. 
Sacred    Harmonic    Society,  The 

[1832—1882],  440. 
Sagbutts    and    Cornets,  Locke's 

Music  for  the  [1661],  166. 
Saggio  di  conirapunto  (Martini's), 

[1774.1775]. 
Sagrijizio  d'A  irawzo, J/(Cimarosa's)^ 

377. 

Saint  Paul  (Mendelssohn's),  353. 
356. 

Saint  Saens,  M.  Charles  Camille, 
427. 

Saintwix,  Dr.  Thomas  [14th  cen- 
tury], 78. 

Salieri,  Antonio  [1750—1825],  275 
—276.  278. 

Salo,  Gaspar  da  (Brescian  Yiolin 
Maker),  135. 

Samson  (Handel's),  [1743],  234. 

Sanctus  (of  the  Mass),  The,  482. 

Sante,    See  Palestrina. 

Sappho  (M.  Gounod's),  [1851], 
430. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table.  529 


Sarahande,  TJie  (ItaL  Sarahanda), 
487. 

Sarti,  Ginseppe  [1729—1802:,  38o. 
Satyrs    ilarvpoi)    of   the  Greek 

Chorns,  477. 
Saul  (Handel's),  [1739],  2.S4. 
Savile,  Jeremy  (Madrigalist),  [17tb 

century]. 
Savonaj'ola  (Dr.  C.  V.  Stanford's), 

[1884],  452  Oiote). 
Scale,  The    Greek,    9—11  (and 

notes). 

Scale,  ^Mathematical  proportions  of 

the  modem,  11  {note). 
Scales,  The  modem  Major,  and 

Elinor,  11  {note). 
Scarlatti,  Alessandro  ""1659 — 1725], 

156—159. 
Scarlatti,  Domenico  ]1683— 1757", 

196—197. 
Scena  {(tktjvt])  of  the  Greek  Theatre, 

478. 

Schalmey,  The  ]1620],  133. 
Schauspieldirektor,  Ber  (Mozart's), 

[1786],  275. 
Scherzo  (invented  by  Beethoven), 

492.  494. 

Schicksalslied  (Herr  J.  J.  Brahms's), 

451  {note). 
Schobert  (Composer),  '1730 — 1768^', 

287. 

Schoner  und  scKoner  (Fanny  Men- 
delssohn's), 355. 

Schneider,  Friedrich  Johann  Chris- 
tian [1786—1853],  405 — 1^36. 

Schneider,  Johann  Gottlob  [1789 — 
18^],  406. 

Schnyder  von  Wartensee,  Xaver 
[1786—1868]. 

School  of  Bologna,  The  Early,  60. 

School,  The  Early  Florentine,  60. 

School,  Tlie  Early  French,  60. 

School,  The  Early  Lombard,  60. 

School,  The  Early  Xeapohtan,  60. 

School,  The  Early  Spanish,  60. 


School,  The  Early  Venetian,  60. 
School  of  the  Restoration,  The 

EngHsh,  163—187. 
School,  The  Imaginative,  494 — i96. 
School  of  Leipzig,  The,  301 — 308. 
School  of  Munich,  The,  60. 
School  of  Nuremberg,  The,  60. 
School,  The  Komautic,  282—283. 

494-496. 
School  of  Vienna,  The,  308—310. 
School,  The  Venetian  Dramatic, 

110—117. 
Schools,  The  Early  EngHsh  (1st, 

2nd,  3rd,  4th,  5th,  and  oth),  75— 

83. 

Schools,  The  Early  Flemish  (Ist, 
2nd,  3rd,  and  4th),  53 — 55. 

Schools,  The  Early  Roman  (1st  and 
2nd),  56  et  seq. 

Schools,  The  Modern,  51. 

Schools,  The  Monodic  (or  Homo- 
phonic),  50. 

Schools,  The  Polyodic,  50.  211— 
212. 

Schools,  The  Polyphonic,  50 — 52. 
61—94. 

Schroeder-Devrient,  "SVilhelmine 

[18<>4— 1860],  344. 
ScHTBEET,    Fraxz  [1797—1828], 

287.  327-333. 
ScHx:MA2rN-,  Egbert  '1810 — 1856^, 

290.  357.  367—372. " 
Schumann,  Madame   Clara,  197, 

368. 

Schnppanzigh.  Ignaz  (Violinist), 

[1776—1830]. 
Schiitz,    Heinrich    '1585 — 1672", 

397. 

Scipione  (Handel's),  ]1726],  231. 

Seasons,  The  (Haydn's),  ]1801],  265. 

Section  of  the  Canon  (Euclid's),  9. 

Sedulins,  Cains  CeeUus  (Hymno- 
logist),  ]oth  century]. 

Select  Musicall  Ayres  and  Dia- 
logues (Playford's),  ]1652],  101. 
if  m 


530.  Index  and  Chro7to logical  Table. 


Semibreve,  First  use  of  the,  34. 

Semicroma,  The,  34. 

Semifusa,  or   Semiquaver  {Semi- 

cromay  JBiscroma),  First  use  of 

the,  34. 

Semiminima,   The    Greater,  and 

Lesser,  34. 
Semiography,  or  Notation  by  Signs, 

16.  24. 

Semiramide  (Eossini's),  [1823], 
394. 

Semitone,  The  modern  Chromatic, 

12  {note  1). 
Semitone,  The  modern  Diatonic 

10. 11  {note). 
Senesino  (Francesco  Bernardi,  detto 

II),  [1680-1750],  386. 
Sequentia  (the  Sequence  or  Prose), 

87—88.  479. 
Serse  (Handel's),  [1738],  232. 
Serva  Padrona,  La  (Pergolesi's), 

[1731],  200. 
Shepherde,John  [Jlor.  1542—1560], 

79. 

Shield,  William  [1748-1829],  317. 
Siegfried  (Wagner's),  [1876],  457. 
460. 

Siegfried^s  TrauermarscJi  (Wag- 
ner's), 498. 

Signa  asinina  (Asses'  marks), 482. 

Sigurd  (M.  Ernest  Eeyer's),  451 
{note). 

Silbermann,  Gottfried  [0&.  1753], 
242.  285. 

Sinqsjpielj  The  German,  297.  305 — 
308. 

Siroe  (Handel's),  [1728],  231. 

Sistine  Chapel,  Choir  of  the,  54. 
66.  57—58.  68.  483. 

Sistrum,  The  Egyptian,  4. 

Slow  Movement  of  the  Sonata- 
Form,  491. 

Smart,  Sir  George  [1776—1867], 
342,  440—441. 

Smart,  Henry  [1813—1879],  439. 


Smeaton,  Mark  [05. 1536],  79. 

•  S  mith ,       Father '  (Bernhard 

Schmidt),  [1630—1708],  147. 
Smith,  John  Christopher  (Handel's 

Secretary),  [1712—1795],  439. 
Smith,  John  Stafford  (Organist), 

[1750-1836]. 
Solmisation    invented  by  Guido 

d'Arezzo  [11th  century],  28. 
Solo  (in  the  Classical  Concerto), 

492. 

Solomon  (Handel's),  [1749],  234. 
Son  and  Stranger  (Mendelssohn's). 
Son   de  la  Clochette^  Le  [1581], 
150. 

Sonata,  The  Classical,  491—492. 
Sonata-Form,  The  (Haydn's),  266  - 

268.  491—494. 
Songs,  National,  41. 
Sonnamhula,  La  (Bellini's),  [1831], 

390. 

Sontag,  Henriette  (Contessa  de' 

Eossi),  [1805—1854],  387. 
Sophocles  [B.C.  497—406],  7.  478. 
Soprano  Voices,  Artificial,  386. 
Sosarme  (Handel's),  [1732],  232. 
Soto,    Francesco  (Polyphonist), 

[1534—1619]. 
Spectre's  Bride,  The  (Herr  Anton 

Dvorak's),  [1885],  441  {note). 
Spem  in  alium  (Tallis's,  for  40 

Voices),  [16th  century],  81. 
Spinet,  The,  134.  141—143. 
Spofforth,  Eeginald  [1768—1827], 

432. 

Spohr,  Ludwig  [1784—1859],  342 
—348. 

Spontini,  Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico 

[1774—1851],  419—422. 
Square-headed  notes,  Early,  34 — 

35. 

Stahat  Mater,  88.  200.  394. 
Stainer,  Jacob  [1621—1683],  137. 
Staudigl,  Joseph  (celebrated  Bary- 
tone), [1807—1861]. 


Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


531 


Stave,  Invention  of  the,  29 — 33. 
Steffani,  Agostino  [1655—1730], 
195. 

Steibelt,  Daniel  [1764— 1823],  287. 
Stevens,   Ricliard  Jolin  Samuel 

[1757—1837],  432. 
Storace,    Stephen  [1763—1796], 

317—318. 
Storia  delta  Musica  (Martini's), 

[1757. 1770.  1781],  iv. 
Strada    del  Po,   Madame  Anna 

\Jior.  1729—1738],  386. 
Stradella,  Alessandro  [17th  cen- 
tury], 153—156. 
Stradivari,  Antonio  [1649—1737], 

136—137. 
Straniera,  La  (Bellini's),  [1828], 

389. 

Stretto  of  the  Tonal  Fugue,  485. 
486. 

Stringed  Instruments,  Early,  130. 

134.  135—138. 
Strophes  of  the  Greek  Chorus,  478. 
Strozzi,    Giulio    [17th  century], 

113. 

Strozzi,  Pietro  [17th  century],  103. 
Strunck,   Nicolaus  [1640—1700], 
306. 

Subject  (of  a  Fugue),  481.  484. 
Subjects  (of  a  Sonata),  266—269. 
491.  492. 

Siissmayer,  Franz  Xaver  [1766 — 

1803],  278.  398. 
Suite,  The  lnstrumental{ov  Partita), 

490. 

Suites  pour  le  Clavecin  (Handel's), 

[1720],  230. 
Sumer  is  icumen  in  [1226],  47 — 49. 

74. 

Suriano  (or  Soriano.  Contrapunt- 
ist), Francesco  [1549—1620]. 

Susanna  (Handel's),  [1749],  234. 

Sweet  honey-suching  bees  (Wilbye's), 
[1609],  82. 

Symphony,  The  Classical,  492. 

M 


Symphonies  (Beethoven's),  280. 
Symphonies  (Haydn's),  261.  263  et 
seq. 

Symphonies  (Mendelssohn's),  350. 
'  354.  356. 

Symphonies  (Mozart's),  219. 

Symphonies  (Schubert's),  328. 

Symphonies  (Spohr's),  345 — 346. 

'  Symphonys '  first  used  in  the 
Yerse- Anthem  [1662],  167—169. 

Syntagma  mnsicum  (Prsetorius's), 
[1615—1620],  133-134. 

Syrinx,  The  (Gr.  avpiy^,  Pan's 
Pipes),  145. 

System,  The  Immutable,  of  Py- 
thagoras Icirca  B.C.  585],  9  (and 
note). 

T. 

Tacchinardi,  Fanny  (Madame  Per- 
siani),  [1812—1867],  387. 

Tallis,  Thomas  [Ob.  1585],  80. 

Tamburini,  Antonio  [1880—1876], 
387.  390. 

Tamerlano  (Handel's),  [1724],  231. 
Taming  of  the  Shrew,  The  (Goetz's), 

[1874],  408. 
Tancredi,  II    (Rossini's),  [1813], 

392. 

Tannhduser  (Wagner's),  [1845], 
456. 

Taverner,  John  {flor.  circa  1530], 
79. 

Teatrodi  San  Cassiano  [1637],  114. 
115. 

Teatro  di  S.S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo 

[1639],  116. 
Teatro  di  San  Mose  [1641],  114. 

116. 

Te  Deum  (Graun's),  [1763],  207. 
Te  Deum   (Handel's  Dettiugeu), 
[1743]. 

Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  (Handel's 
Utrecht),  [1713],  227. 

.  2 


532 


Index  and  Chronolos'ical  Table. 


Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  (PurceU's), 
[1694],  182—183.  227. 

Telemann,  Georg  Philip  (Com- 
poser), [1681—1767],  379. 

Temjoler  und  die  Jiidin,  Der  (Mar- 
schner's),  [1829],  402. 

Tenor,  Custom  of  placing  the  Me- 
lody in  the,  61.  91.  92.  93.  94. 

Terence,  The  Comedies  of,  in  Five 
Acts,  478. 

Terradellas,  Domenico  [1701 — 
1751],  384. 

Teseo  (Handel's),  [1713],  226. 

Tesi-Tramontini,  Yittoria  (Singer), 
[1690—1775]. 

Tetrachords,  The  Greek,  9—10 
{notes). 

Tetrachords,  The  modern,  11  (note). 
Tetraphonia,  45. 

Thalberg,  Sigismond  (celebrated 
Pianist),  [1812—1871],  289. 

Theatre,  Covent  Garden  [Built 
1732.  Kebuilt  1809,  1847,  and 
1858]. 

Theatre,  Drnry  Lane  [Built  1663. 

Eebuilt  1794,  and  1812]. 
Theatre,   Form  of    the  ancient 

Greek,  478—479. 
Theatre,  The  King's  (now  called 

Her  Majesty's),  225. 
Theatre,   The,   in  Lincoln's  Inn 

Fields    [Built    1662.  Eebuilt 

1714]. 

Theatre,  The  Little  (in  the  Hay- 
market),  [Built  1720.  Kebuilt 
1820],  234. 

Theatre,  The  Lensean,  at  Athens 
[begun  B.C.  500],  6. 

Theile,  Johann  [1646—1724],  397. 

Theorbo  (the  large  Lute),  102.  131. 
132.  134. 

Theodora  (Handel's),  [1750],  232. 

Thespis  [/or.  B.C.  535],  477. 

Thirds,  Early  use  of  the  Minor  and 
Major,  26. 


Thomas,  M.  Charles  Ambroise, 
427. 

Thomas- Schule,  at  Leipzig^,  Cantors 
of  the,  241.  304—305.  857. 

Thorne,  John  [Oh.  1573],  79. 

Thorough-Bass  {Basso  continuo), 
102. 

Three  Choirs,  The  Festivals  of  the, 
440.  442. 

Three  Holy  Children,  The  (Dr. 
C.  y.  Stanford's),  [1885],  452 
{note). 

Thymele  {QvfxeKe),  or  Altar  of  Dio- 
nysus, in  the  Greek  Theatre,  478. 

Tibia  (the  antique  Flute),  [1600], 
132. 

Tichatschek,  Joseph  Alois  (cele- 
brated Tenor),  [1807—  ]. 

Time-Table,  The  origin  of  the,  34. 

Tinctoris,  Johannes  de  [1434 — 
1520],  46.  78. 

Titiens,  Therese  Caroline  [1834 — 
1877],  387. 

Toccato  (the  Prelude  to  Monte- 
verde's  Orfeo),  [1608],  111—112. 

Tod  Jesu,  Der  (Graun's),  [1755], 
207. 

Todi,    Maria    Franzisca  Luigia 

(Singer),  [1748—1792]. 
Tofts,  Mrs.  Catherine  (Singer),  \_0b. 

circa  1736]. 
Tolomeo  (Handel's),  [1728],  231. 
Tom  Thumb  (Dr.  Arne's),  [1733], 

312. 

Tombs  of  the  Kings,  Musical  In- 
struments portrayed  in  the,  4. 

Tomkins,  Thomas  (Polyphonist), 
[Jlor.  1600]. 

Tomkins,  Thomas,  Jun.  (Polypho- 
nist), [_0b.  1636]. 

Tonal  Fugue,  The,  484—486. 

Tone  of  Disjunction,  The,  9  {note). 

Tones,  The  Gregorian,  18—20. 

Tones,  The  Greater  and  Lesser 
(=  5  and  ^),  9-11. 


Index  and  Chronolooical  Table. 


533 


Tonus  Peregrinus,  The,  19.  85. 
Tonus  Regius,  The,  85. 
Toscanello  della  Musica,  II  (Pietro 

Aron's),  [1523.  1529.  1539],  482. 
Tosi,     Pier    Francesco  (Singer), 

[1650-1730]. 
Traetta,  Tommaso  Michele  Fran- 
cesco Saverio  [1727—1779],  384. 
Tragedy  {rpayadia.),  Ancient  Greek, 

6—7.  103.  463—464.  477—479. 
Tragi- Comedy,  The  Greek,  7. 
Tremolo,  The  (invented  by  Monte- 

verde),  [1624],  112—113. 
Trent,  The  Council  of  {Concilium 

Trideiitinum),  [1542—1564],  58. 

65. 

Trijiauto  (the  Triple  Flute),  [1600], 
132. 

Trio,  The  Classical  Piano-forte, 492. 
Trio,  The  Classical,  for  Stringed 

Instruments,  492. 
Trio  of  the  Classical  Minuet,  491. 
Trionfo    del    Tempo  (Handel's), 

[1708],  224. 
Triphonia,  45. 

Tristan    und  Isolde  ("Wagner's), 

[1865],  457—459.  497. 
Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth,  The 

(Handel's),  [1757],  232. 
Tromha  (the  trumpet),  132. 
Trombone,  The,  132.  133. 
Tromboneino,  Bartholomeeus  (Poly- 

phonist),  \_flor.  1505]. 
Troubadours,'  The,  37—39.  41. 
Trumpet,  The,  133.  157.  183.  224. 
Tudway,  Dr.  Thomas  \_0b.  1730], 

171—172.  178. 
Tunes  to  the  Psalms,  Eight  (Tal- 

lis's),  [1567],  91—92. 
Turle,  James  (talented  Organist), 

[1802—1882]. 
Turner,  Dr.  William  [1651—1740], 

171.  172.  178. 
Tutti  (in  the  Classical  Concerto), 

492. 


Tye,  Dr.  Christopher  [f,or.  1553], 
80. 

Tylman  Susato  (Polyphonist),  \_0b. 
1564]. 


U. 

Undine  (Hoffmann's),  [1817],  399. 
Unisonous  Plain  Chaunt,  15  et  seq^.-, 

58.  66.  84—87. 
Unprepared  Discords,  First  use  of, 

98.  483  {note). 
Uthal  (Mehul's),  [1806],  299—300. 
Ut  queant  laxis,  28. 
Ut,  Be,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  28. 
TJtrecht   Te   Deum   and  Jubilate 

(Handel's),  [1713],  227. 


Y. 

V^LENTixi,  Pier  Frances©  (Poly- 
phonist), lOb.  1654]. 

Yalle,  Pietro  della  [1586-1652],  i. 

Yampyr,  Der  (Marschner's),  [1828], 
401. 

Yanhall     (or    Wanhall)  Johann 

[1739—1813],  287. 
Yauxhall  Gardens  [1667—1848]. 
Veiled  Prophet,  The  (Dr.   C.  V. 

Stanford's),  451  {note). 
Yenetian  Dramatic  School,  Eapid 

progress  of  the,  115 — 117. 
Veni  Sancte  Spiritus  (the  Sequence 

for  Whit- Sunday),  88. 
Yercelli,  Hugotio  di   (Writer  on 

Music),  lOb.  1212]. 
Yerdelot,  Philipp  [Ob.  1560],  55. 
Yerdi,  Sigr.  Giuseppe  [1814 —  ], 

453  {note). 
Yernio,  Giovanni  Bardi,  Conte  di 

[16th  and  17th  centuries],  103. 

104. 


534  Index  and  Chronological  Table. 


Verschivorenen,  Die  (Schubert's), 

[1823],  330. 
Yerse  Anthem,  Origin  of  the,  176 

—177. 

Vesjperale  Romanum,  88.  480. 
Vestale,  La   (Spontini's),  [1807]. 
420. 

Yiadana,  Luca  [1566— 1645".P],  102. 
Yiardot,    Madame    {nee  Garcia), 

[1821—  ]. 
Yicentino,  Don  Nicola  (Polypho- 

nist),  Iflor.  1546]. 
Yieuxtemps,  Henri  (Yioliaist  and 

Composer),  [1820-1881]. 
Vilanella  (or  lighter  kind  of  Italian 

Madrigal),  47. 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da  [1690—1732], 

191. 

Yiol,  The  (Treble,  Mean,  and  Bass), 

132.  138. 
Viol  d'  amore,  138. 
Yiola,  The  (Eng.  Tenor,  Germ. 

Bratsche)i  134. 
Viola  da  Qamha,  The,  132.  134. 

138. 

Violetta,  The  (a  small  Yiol),  134. 
138. 

Yiolin,  The,  130—131.  134.  135  — 
138. 

Yiolin  School  (Spohr's),  346. 
Yiolins,    His    Majesty's  [1762], 
168. 

Violoncello   (or    Bass- Yiol),  The, 
138. 

Violone  {Contra- Basso,  or  Double- 

Bass),  The,  132.  134. 138. 
Violons,  Les  joetits  (of  King  Louis 

XIY.),  160. 
Violons,  Le  Roy  des,  40. 
Yirginal,  The  (a  paire  of  Yirgi- 

nalls),  139.  141. 
Virginal  Booh,  Queen  I]lizahetJis, 

490. 

Yittoria,  Tommaso  Ludovico  [1540 
—1605  ?],  60.  61. 


Vogelweide,  Walther  von  der  (Min- 
nesinger), Iflor.  1207],  39. 

Yogler,  The  Abbe  Georg  Joseph 
[1749—1814],  334.  398. 

Volksliedy  The  German,  41. 

Voluntaries  for  the  Organ,  Treat- 
ment of  the  Choral  in,  89. 


W. 

Waelbant,  Huberto  [1517—1595], 
55. 

Wagner,  Wilhelm  Eichard  [1813 

—1883],  454. 
Wagner's  method  of  Part- writing, 

467—468.  497—498. 
Wagner's  theory  of  the  Musical 

Drama,  463—468. 
Waitts,  The  (Fa,  la,  by  Savile), 

[1667]. 

Waldmddchen,  Das  (Weber's), 
[1800],  334—335. 

Walkure,  Die  (Wagner's),  [1870], 
457.  460. 

Wallace,  Yincent,  439. 

Walsegg,Count  (the  pretended  com- 
poser of  Mozart's  Requiem),  277. 

Walther,  Johannes  [06.  1555],  89. 
90. 

Walther,  Johann  Gottfried  [1684— 

[1748],  iii. 
Waltz,  'Mr.'  (Bass  Singer),  [18th 

century],  252  (and  note). 
Waltz,  The,  489. 

Wanhall    (or    Yanhall)  Johann 

[1739—1813],  287. 
Ward,  John  [16th   century],  80. 

92. 

Water  Music  (Handel's),  [1715], 
229. 

Waterman,  The  (Dibdin's),  [1774], 
316. 

Webbe,  Samuel  [1740—1816],  432. 


Index  a7id  Chronological  Table.  535 


Weber,  Carl  Maria  von  [1786— 

1826],  333—342.  349. 
Weelkes,  Thomas  [/Zor.  1600],  80. 
Weigl,  Joseph  [1706—1846],  400. 
Weingarten,  The  Organ  at,  146. 
WeinHg,    Theodor  [1780—1842], 

398. 

Weldon,  John  {_0h.  1736],  187. 
205. 

Werner,  G.  J.  [06.  1766],  262. 

Wert  (or  Waert)  Giaches  de  [16th 
century],  55. 

Wesley,  Charles  [1757—1815]. 

Wesley,  Samuel  [1766—1837]. 

Wesley,  Dr.  Samuel  Sebastian 
[1810—1876]. 

Westminster  Abbey,  Musical  Fes- 
tivals in,  440. 

Whitehall,  The  Chapel  Eoyal  at, 
164  et  seq. 

Whyte,  Eobert  [16th  century],  80. 

Widerspdnstigen  Zdhmungy  Der 
(Goetz's),  [1874],  408. 

Wieck,  Friedrich  [1785—  ],  367 
—368. 

Wilbye,  John  \Jlor.  1600],  80.  82. 
WiUaert,    Adriano  [1490—1563], 
55.  60. 

Winter,  Peter  von  [1754—1825], 
398. 

Wise,  Michael  [06.  1687],  165. 
177. 

Woelfl,  Joseph  [1772—1812],  287. 
Wohltemjperirte    Clavier     (J.  S. 

Bach's),  144. 
Woman  of  Samaria,  The  (Sir  W.  S. 

Bennett's),  [1867],  445. 
Wood  Nymphs,  The  (Sir  W.  S. 

Bennett's  Overture),  [1840],  443. 
Wood,  Mrs.,  see  Paton,  Miss,  342. 
Worcester  Festival,  The,  442. 


X. 

Xerxes   (Ital.   Serse.  Handel's), 
[1738],  232. 


Y. 

Yonge,  Nicolas  [/or.  1588—1597], 
83. 

Z. 

Zacconi,  Ludovico   \Jior.  1592 — 

1622],  482. 
Zachau,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  [1663 

—1721],  222. 
Zarlino,  Gioseffo  [1517—1590],  60. 

482. 

Zauberpte,  Die  (Mozart's),  [1792], 
276. 

Zauherharfe,    Die  (Schubert's), 

[1820],  330. 
Zeelandia,  H.   de  (Polyphonist), 

[14th  century]. 
Zeitschrift  der  MusiJc,  Die  Neue 

(Schumann's),  368. 
Zelter,    Carl    Friedrich  [1758— 

1832],  349— 350. 
Zemire  und  Azor  (Spohr's),  [1819], 

345. 

Zerstbrung  Jerusalems,  Die  (Dr. 

F.  HiUer's),  441  {note). 
Zoilo,     Annibale  (Polyphonist), 

[Jior.  1560—1570]. 
Zopf,  The  period  of  the  so-called, 

385-387. 
Zumpe,  Johannes  (inventor  of  the 

Square  Piano-foi-te),  286. 
Zwillingshruder,  Die  (Schubert's), 

[1820],  330. 


THE  END. 


loitdon: 

peilfted  by  gilbert  and  eivixgton", 

ST.  JOHlf'S  SQUABE. 


Date  Due 


)  27  '4-' 

N  10  % 


r 


